Philip T. Roundy

Qualitative data: Cooking without a recipe

As researchers who often work with qualitative data, we are frequently asked to review qualitative papers and to speak about how to conduct qualitative research. Through these experiences, we have come to believe that there are prevalent misconceptions about the range of roles that qualitative data can play in research on strategic organization. Most frequently, an assumption is made that qualitative data should only be used in areas of nascent theory. Less frequently but equally problematically, an assumption is made that qualitative data should only be used when researchers are employing an interpretive perspective. We argue that these assumptions about the roles of qualitative data are excessively narrow and have led to several unfortunate consequences. For example, many authors justify their use of qualitative data by arguing that there is a lack of prior theory in their domain of interest – even when this is not the case and when they may be using qualitative data for other, entirely legitimate reasons. In our view, strategic organization is an eclectic domain that encompasses multiple theoretical approaches and levels of analysis, and that diversity can and should be reflected in the ways in which qualitative data are used. It is often observed that no cookbook or recipe exists for qualitative research (Bansal and Corley, 2011; Coffey and Atkinson, 1996; Maxwell, 2005; Pratt, 2009). To take the analogy further, we view qualitative data as an ingredient, like flour, that can be used in a creative and wide-ranging variety of ways. Our intended contribution in this essay is to explicate the multiple functions that qualitative research can play in studies of strategic organization, and in particular, to debunk what we view as myths regarding the circumstances in which qualitative data are valuable, and by extension, the criteria by which qualitative studies should be judged. Our goal is to offer a framework that is useful to authors when deciding whether and how to use qualitative data and to reviewers when evaluating qualitative work. We hope to move the field beyond its current state, which reminds us of a restaurant critic who disparages a perfectly good chocolate eclair because he was expecting a baguette. 452821 SOQ10310.1177/1476127012452821Graebner et al.Strategic Organization 2012

Start-up Community Narratives: The Discursive Construction of Entrepreneurial Ecosystems

Entrepreneurial ecosystems are receiving growing attention. However, past research has primarily focused on the physical characteristics and artefacts of such systems. The social construction of entrepreneurial ecosystems, and particularly the discourse involved in their creation, evolution and promotion, has not been examined. To address this omission in past research, this conceptual article builds on the work from several disciplines on a specific type of discourse: narratives. Theory is developed regarding the types of narratives constructed in entrepreneurial ecosystems and their functions. The theorising draws from and synthesises multiple streams of research, including work on sense-making, identity construction, legitimacy and attention.

The Stories of Social Entrepreneurship: Narrative Discourse and Social Venture Resource Acquisition

Social entrepreneurship is a phenomenon of increasing significance. A key challenge for social ventures is resource acquisition. However, how social entrepreneurs gather the resources necessary to grow their organizations is not clear. The focus of this study is how narratives are used to acquire social venture resources. This topic is examined using a multi-study, inductive, theory-building design based on 121 interviews, observation, and archival data. In Study 1, 75 entrepreneurs, investors, and ancillary participants in the social enterprise sector are interviewed. In Study 2, case studies are constructed of eight technology-focused social ventures. Evidence from this study is used to construct a framework explaining how differences in entrepreneurs’ narrative tactics and characteristics are associated with differences in their resource acquisition success. Specifically, from Study 1 a typology is developed of social enterprise narratives, identify three narrative-types (personal, social-good, and business), and show that they possess unique elements. Evidence from Study 2 suggests that the three narrative-types serve as the building blocks for communication with external stakeholders. These findings contribute to three literatures that formed the basis of the study – social entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial resource acquisition, and organizational narrative theory – and have implications for work on competing organizational logics. They also produce several practical implications for social entrepreneurs.

The ‘Ties that Bind’ Board Interlocks Research: A Systematic Review

Purpose Board interlocks are a phenomenon of widespread prevalence and one of the most vibrant topics in corporate governance research. However, despite sustained academic interest in interlocks, there has not been a comprehensive review of the literature in nearly two decades. To address this need for an up-to-date review, this paper aims to conduct an assessment and integration of the empirical research on board interlocks. Design/methodology/approach In reviewing the board interlocks literature, the “systematic review” approach, which emphasizes methodological rigor and transparency, has been used. Using this method, 81 empirical papers that became the focus of this analysis have been identified. Findings This review reveals that board interlocks research can be categorized based on the theoretical lens used, its focus on antecedents or outcomes of interlock activities and the perspective of the study (i.e. firm- or director-level). Moreover, a number of commonly examined themes have been identified. Several unexpected omissions in the literature have also been uncovered. For instance, it was found that scholars have neither examined the implications of engaging in interlocks in a global context nor have they explored the phenomenon of international interlocks (i.e. interlocks between firms located in different countries). Originality/value In developing a deeper understanding of the board interlocks literature, this review identifies several topics and disciplines that, if pursued, could enrich the literature and open promising avenues for future research.

Entrepreneurial alertness as a pathway to strategic decisions and organizational performance

Entrepreneurial alertness can play a vital role in the identification and creation of opportunities involving early-stage ventures. However, the strategic function of entrepreneurial alertness in more mature organizations has not been explored. In a field study of organizations responding to an environmental disruption, we explore if entrepreneurial alertness influences decisions involving the creation and maintenance of competitive advantage. We find a direct effect of entrepreneurial alertness on strategic change decisions and organizational performance. Moreover, we find a synergistic influence of entrepreneurial alertness and other cognitions, including issue categorization and assessments of uncertainty, on strategic decisions. Findings demonstrate that managerial decision makers can take multiple, reinforcing pathways when heeding change.

“Small town” entrepreneurial ecosystems: Implications for developed and emerging economies

Purpose Entrepreneurial ecosystems are receiving growing attention from scholars, practitioners and policy-makers in both developed and developing countries. Studies of this phenomenon have focused almost exclusively on ecosystems in large, urbanized regions and metropolitan areas, located primarily in developed economies. However, the prevalence of small cities across the globe and the increasing acknowledgment that entrepreneurship in small towns is a key determinant of their economic development and rejuvenation suggests that entrepreneurial ecosystems research would benefit from a broader lens of inquiry. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to introduce a framework for studying entrepreneurial ecosystems in small towns. Design/methodology/approach This conceptual paper introduces the concept of small town entrepreneurial ecosystems (STEEs), draws from a wide-ranging set of disciplines to delineate the ways in which small town ecosystems are similar to and different than their larger counterparts and theorizes about several strategies STEEs use to overcome their limitations. Findings It is theorized that entrepreneurship in small cities is best conceptualized as the outcome of an ecosystem, which means that although small towns may not have some of the same key components as entrepreneurial ecosystems in large urban centers, other elements of the ecosystem may be able to bolster these deficiencies. It also suggests that those attempting to create or develop small town ecosystems may need to be entrepreneurial in the way they attract, view and utilize resources. Finally, it is theorized that small cities may be able to engage in several strategies to overcome their limitations and create vibrant entrepreneurial communities. Originality/value The theory developed produces implications for scholars focused on entrepreneurial ecosystems, economic development and emerging economies and suggests practical implications for policy-makers and development organizations seeking to improve the economic landscape of small cities.

Social Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Ecosystems: Complementary or Disjointed Phenomena?

Purpose The formation of entrepreneurial ecosystems is recognized as an activity that can produce economic development and community revitalization. Social entrepreneurship is also an activity that is receiving growing attention because of its potential for addressing social and economic problems. However, while scholars have focused on how the participants in entrepreneurial ecosystems, such as investors and support organizations, influence ecosystem functioning, it is not clear what role social entrepreneurs can play in entrepreneurial ecosystems. Nor is it known how the entrepreneurial ecosystems in which social entrepreneurs are located can influence the founding and operation of their ventures. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach In this conceptual paper, theory is proposed to explain the interrelationship between entrepreneurial ecosystems and social entrepreneurship. Findings It is theorized that entrepreneurial ecosystems will influence the operations and effectiveness of social entrepreneurs through mechanisms such as the ecosystem’s diversity of resource providers, support infrastructure, entrepreneurial culture, and learning opportunities. In turn, social entrepreneurs can shape the entrepreneurial ecosystems in which they are situated by influencing the heterogeneity of ecosystem participants, garnering attention for the ecosystem, and increasing its attractiveness to stakeholders. Originality/value Scholars examining entrepreneurial ecosystems have not studied the role of an increasingly important market actor: the social entrepreneur. At the same time, work on social entrepreneurship has not emphasized the community of social relations and cultural milieu in which social entrepreneurs found their ventures. The theory developed addresses both of these omissions and has important implications for practitioners focused on spurring entrepreneurial ecosystems and social entrepreneurship.

Finance or philanthropy? Exploring the motivations and criteria of impact investors

The growing prevalence of social entrepreneurship has been coupled with an increasing number of so-called “impact investors”. However, much remains to be learned about this nascent class of investors. To address the dearth of scholarly attention to impact investing, this study seeks to answer four questions that are central to understanding the phenomenon. What are the defining characteristics of impact investing? Do impact investors differ from traditional classes of investors and, if so, how? What are the motivations that drive impact investment? And, what criteria do impact investors use when evaluating potential investments?,A partially inductive study based on semi-structured interviews with 31 investors and ethnographic observation was conducted to explore how impact investors differ from other classes of investors in their motivations and unique criteria used to evaluate ventures seeking investment.,This study reveals that impact investors represent a unique class of investors that differs from socially responsible investing, from other types of for-profit investors, such as venture capitalists and angel investors, and from traditional philanthropists. The varied motivations of impact investors and the criteria they use to evaluate investments are identified.,Despite the growing practitioner and media attention to impact investing, several foundational issues remain unaddressed. This study takes the first steps toward shedding light on this new realm of early-stage venture investing and clarifying its role in larger efforts of social responsibility.

Becoming a Hybrid Organization: When Traditional Nonprofits Found New Ventures

New ventures are increasingly being founded in a novel context: within the boundaries of traditional nonprofit organizations. This phenomenon represents a type of social entrepreneurship. Despite the emerging prevalence of this activity, it has received very little academic attention. This study examines the topic through an exploratory, partially-inductive study based on 33 interviews with managers and other participants in the nonprofit sector. Findings generate propositions regarding nonprofits’ key motivations for creating new ventures and the characteristics of both nonprofit organizations and the managers of their business ventures that can influence venture success. These findings have implications for theory in social entrepreneurship and the market orientation of nonprofits, and they produce concrete insights for practicing nonprofit entrepreneurs and managers.

‘Every Man's Work Shall Be Made Manifest’: Religious Callings in the Age of Organizational Spirituality

Prior research has examined how viewing one’s work as a “job,” a “career,” or a “calling” influences the satisfaction individuals derive from their work. However, research has considered only non-religious (secular) connotation of callings. This paper examines whether or not there is a link between believing that one’s work is a calling in the religious sense and an individual’s work satisfaction. More specifically, it is argued there is a positive relationship between religious callings and job satisfaction. In addition, it is hypothesized that this relationship is moderated by a third factor: organizational spirituality. After providing an overview of the organizational (or workplace) spirituality movement, the author contends that for organizations that are “spiritual” the positive link between religious callings and job satisfaction will be strengthened; while for non-spiritual organizations, the relationship will be either attenuated or negated. Hence, if employers want to increase the satisfaction that employees – both religious and non-religious – derive from their work, then they should strive to increase the spirituality of their organizations.