Philipp Süssenbach

Acceptance of Sexual Aggression Myths in a Representative Sample of German Residents

A representative sample of German residents (N = 5397) was surveyed with the aim of studying their acceptance of contemporary rape myths (RMA), using items from the Acceptance of Modern Myths About Sexual Aggression Scale [AMMSA; Gerger et al., 2007] in relation to demographic variables (e.g., gender, age), intolerant belief systems (e.g., sexism, islamophobia), the ideologies of rightwing authoritarianism (RWA), and social dominance orientation (SDO), as well as gender identification. Age showed a U-shaped relationship with RMA, whereas gender was unrelated to RMA. For men (women), greater identification with their gender was associated with higher (lower) RMA. Substantial correlations of RMA with intolerant belief systems support the idea of a schema of intolerance. Although RWA and SDO were both related to RMA, only RWA explained unique variance beyond the effects of intolerant belief systems. Results are discussed in comparison to prior studies using mainly student samples.

Effects of and Attention to Graphic Warning Labels on Cigarette Packages

Objective: The present study investigates the effects of graphic cigarette warnings compared to text-only cigarette warnings on smokers’ explicit (i.e. ratings of the packages, cognitions about smoking, perceived health risk, quit intentions) and implicit attitudes. In addition, participants’ visual attention towards the graphic warnings was recorded using eye-tracking methodology.Design and methods: Sixty-three smokers participated in the present study and either viewed graphic cigarette warnings with aversive and non-aversive images or text-only warnings. Data were analysed using analysis of variance and correlation analysis.Results: Especially, graphic cigarette warnings with aversive content drew attention and elicited high threat. However, whereas attention directed to the textual information of the graphic warnings predicted smokers’ risk perceptions, attention directed to the images of the graphic warnings did not. Moreover, smokers’ in the graphic warning condition reported more positive cognitions about smoking, thus revealing cognitive dissonance.Conclusion: Smokers employ defensive psychological mechanisms when confronted with threatening warnings. Although aversive images attract attention, they do not promote health knowledge. Implications for graphic health warnings and the importance of taking their content (i.e. aversive vs. non-aversive images) into account are discussed.

Lateral Attitude Change

The authors propose a framework distinguishing two types of lateral attitude change (LAC): (a) generalization effects, where attitude change toward a focal object transfers to related objects, and (b) displacement effects, where only related attitudes change but the focal attitude does not change. They bring together examples of LAC from various domains of research, outline the conditions and underlying processes of each type of LAC, and develop a theoretical framework that enables researchers to study LAC more systematically in the future. Compared with established theories of attitude change, the LAC framework focuses on lateral instead of focal attitude change and encompasses both generalization and displacement. Novel predictions and designs for studying LAC are presented.

Victimization experiences and the stabilization of victim sensitivity

People reliably differ in the extent to which they are sensitive to being victimized by others. Importantly, “victim sensitivity” predicts how people behave in social dilemma situations: Victim-sensitive individuals are less likely to trust others and more likely to behave uncooperatively—especially in socially uncertain situations. This pattern can be explained with the sensitivity to mean intentions (SeMI) model, according to which victim sensitivity entails a specific and asymmetric sensitivity to contextual cues that are associated with untrustworthiness. Recent research is largely in line with the model’s prediction, but some issues have remained conceptually unresolved so far. For instance, it is unclear why and how victim sensitivity becomes a stable trait and which developmental and cognitive processes are involved in such stabilization. In the present article, we will discuss the psychological processes that contribute to a stabilization of victim sensitivity within persons, both across the life span (“ontogenetic stabilization”) and across social situations (“actual-genetic stabilization”). Our theoretical framework starts from the assumption that experiences of being exploited threaten a basic need, the need to trust. This need is so fundamental that experiences that threaten it receive a considerable amount of attention and trigger strong affective reactions. Associative learning processes can then explain (a) how certain contextual cues (e.g., facial expressions) become conditioned stimuli that elicit equally strong responses, (b) why these contextual untrustworthiness cues receive much more attention than, for instance, trustworthiness cues, and (c) how these cues shape spontaneous social expectations (regarding other people’s intentions). Finally, avoidance learning can explain why these cognitive processes gradually stabilize and become a trait: the trait which is referred to as victim sensitivity.

Metacognitive Aspects of Rape Myths Subjective Strength of Rape Myth Acceptance Moderates Its Effects on Information Processing and Behavioral Intentions

The authors present a metacognitive approach to influences of rape myth acceptance (RMA) on the processing of rape-related information and rape proclivity. In Study 1, participants (N = 264) completed an RMA scale and subsequently reported the subjective strength (e.g., importance, certainty) of their RMA. Then they read about a rape case, viewed a photograph of the alleged crime scene, and rated the defendant’s guilt on several items. Depending on condition, the photograph contained either RMA-applicable stimuli (e.g., alcoholic beverages) or neutral stimuli. Higher RMA predicted lower ratings of defendant guilt especially when applicable stimuli were present and RMA was strong. Study 2 (N = 85) showed that RMA-related attitude strength also moderated the effect of RMA on self-reported rape proclivity. Results of both studies indicate that the subjective strength of rape-related beliefs may be reliably assessed and serves as an important moderator of effects of RMA. The implications of these findings for prevention programs as well as future directions for research are discussed.

The effect of subjective social status on depressive thinking: An experimental examination

Subjective social status (SSS) predicts health outcomes above and beyond objective measures of social status. Both objective and subjective measures of social status are strongly related with depression. Cognitive mechanisms such as depressive cognitions, rumination, and a negative cognitive style are seen as both concomitant and antecedent to depression. This experiment examined the causal role of SSS in developing depressive thinking. Participants were randomly assigned to a low and a high status group and followed a manipulation procedure targeting their SSS. Depressive thinking was subsequently assessed by depressive cognitions, stress-reactive state rumination and negative cognitive style. Low status participants exhibited higher levels of depressive cognitions and rumination compared to their high status counterparts, but both groups did not differ regarding their cognitive style. Findings support the causal nature of the relationship between SSS and depressive thinking. Several mechanisms of how low SSS may lead to depression are discussed.

Implicit judgments of rape cases: an experiment on the determinants and consequences of implicit evaluations in a rape case

ABSTRACT Implicit evaluations reflect people’s gut response toward an attitude object and are based on associative processes. They are the starting ground for more reflective processes and subsequent explicit evaluations. The present research examined determinants and consequences of implicit evaluations in a rape case. Situational (i.e. specifics of the rape case) and personal factors (i.e. rape myth acceptance) were demonstrated to influence both explicit and implicit judgments of the rape case. Moreover, sex of participant influenced participants’ implicit evaluations but affected explicit judgments only indirectly via the implicit evaluation. People’s gut response was shown to affect their explicit judgment of the case, and this effect was particularly pronounced for people with a low need for cognition (i.e. people who do not like to engage in effortful processing). The discussion focuses on the role of implicit cognition and implicit biases in judicial decision-making.

Looking for Blame: Rape Myth Acceptance and Attention to Victim and Perpetrator

In two studies, the authors examined the influence of rape myth acceptance (RMA) on participants’ attention toward the potential victim versus perpetrator in a rape case. In Study 1 (N = 90), participants selected information that focused on either the male defendant or the female victim. With increasing RMA, participants preferred information that focused on the victim rather than the defendant. In Study 2 (N = 41), participants viewed photographs depicting both victim and defendant while their eye movements were recorded. With increasing RMA, participants spent less time inspecting the defendant relative to the victim. In both studies, higher RMA predicted stronger anti-victim and pro-defendant judgments, replicating previous research. Taken together, these results support the assumption that RMA guides participants’ attention, leading to a focus on the alleged rape victim and away from the alleged perpetrator. Implications of the current research and future directions are discussed.

Subjektiver sozialer Status. MacArthur-Skalen zur Erfassung des wahrgenommenen sozialen Status im sozialen Umfeld (SSS-U) und in Deutschland (SSS-D)

wa et al., 2012; Quon und McGrath, 2014; Euteneuer et al., 2012; Singh-Manoux et al., 2003; 2005]. Niedriger SSS hängt in Ländern mit höherem Lohn stärker mit psychischen Erkrankungen zusammen als in Ländern mit niedrigerem Lohn [Scott et al., 2014]. Eine Vielzahl der Studien berichtet zudem, dass der SSS stärker mit Gesundheitsindikatoren assoziiert ist als der objektive soziale Status (OSS) in Form von Einkommen, Bildung oder Beschäftigungsstatus. Die größeren Effekte des SSS werden durch das Einfließen zusätzlicher statusrelevanter Informationen in das subjektive Maß erklärt (z.B. Zukunftsperspektiven, relative Position in der Referenzgruppe) [Euteneuer, 2014; Singh-Manoux et al., 2003]. Zur Erfassung des SSS wurde überwiegend die MacArthur-Skala eingesetzt [Adler et al., 2000; Cohen, 1999]. Der SSS bezieht sich hierbei auf die selbsteingeschätzte soziale Position im Vergleich zu verschiedenen Referenzgruppen. Die häufigste Version dieser Skala erfasst den SSS bezogen auf die nationale Bevölkerung, d.h. eine distale Referenzgruppe [Adler et al., 2000]. Die Person wird hierbei instruiert, ihren sozialen Status im Vergleich zu Menschen in der Allgemeinbevölkerung hinsichtlich der sozioökonomischen Faktoren Einkommen, Ausbildung und Beschäftigung auf einer Skala zu markieren, die in Form einer Leiter dargestellt ist (www. karger.com/ver_skalen). Neben der nationalen SSS-Skala wurden weitere Versionen der MacArthur-Skala eingeführt, die den sozialen Status in Bezug zum proximalen sozialen Umfeld erfragen. Referenzgruppenbezeichnungen sind hierbei «community», «school» oder «neighborhood» [Camelo et al., 2014; Cohen, 1999; Goodman et al., 2001]. Im Unterschied zur nationalen SSS-Skala wird hierbei ganz allgemein der «soziale Stand» erfragt, ohne explizit auf sozioökonomische Faktoren hinzuweisen. Somit liegt der Mehrwert der SSS-Skalen zum proximalen Umfeld darin, dass eine breitere Berücksichtigung staEinsatzgebiet der Skalen zum subjektiven sozialen Status

Us(ed): The role of victim sensitivity in potentially exploitative intergroup relationships:

In two studies, the influence of victim sensitivity, defined as individual differences in the extent to which people react emotionally when confronted with injustice to their own disadvantage, on intergroup emotions in potentially exploitative intergroup situations was examined. Using a cross-lagged design embedded in the German reunification context (N = 451), it was found that West Germans high in victim sensitivity felt more anger toward East Germans and angst for their ingroup’s future vitality 2 years later. In a second experimental study (N = 63), the effect of victim sensitivity on intergroup anger and intergroup angst was shown to be dependent upon perceived exploitation by an outgroup and explained unique variance over and beyond ideological variables (social dominance orientation, right-wing authoritarianism, political orientation). Taken together, these results suggest that victim sensitivity is an important variable to consider in potentially exploitative situations, not only on the interpersonal, but also on the intergroup level.