Philippe Clergeau

Predicting loss of evolutionary history: Where are we?

The Earths evolutionary history is threatened by species loss in the current sixth mass extinction event in Earths history. Such extinction events not only eliminate species but also their unique evolutionary histories. Here we review the expected loss of Earths evolutionary history quantified by phylogenetic diversity (PD) and evolutionary distinctiveness (ED) at risk. Due to the general paucity of data, global evolutionary history losses have been predicted for only a few groups, such as mammals, birds, amphibians, plants, corals and fishes. Among these groups, there is now empirical support that extinction threats are clustered on the phylogeny; however this is not always a sufficient condition to cause higher loss of phylogenetic diversity in comparison to a scenario of random extinctions. Extinctions of the most evolutionarily distinct species and the shape of phylogenetic trees are additional factors that can elevate losses of evolutionary history. Consequently, impacts of species extinctions differ among groups and regions, and even if global losses are low within large groups, losses can be high among subgroups or within some regions. Further, we show that PD and ED are poorly protected by current conservation practices. While evolutionary history can be indirectly protected by current conservation schemes, optimizing its preservation requires integrating phylogenetic indices with those that capture rarity and extinction risk. Measures based on PD and ED could bring solutions to conservation issues, however they are still rarely used in practice, probably because the reasons to protect evolutionary history are not clear for practitioners or due to a lack of data. However, important advances have been made in the availability of phylogenetic trees and methods for their construction, as well as assessments of extinction risk. Some challenges remain, and looking forward, research should prioritize the assessment of expected PD and ED loss for more taxonomic groups and test the assumption that preserving ED and PD also protects rare species and ecosystem services. Such research will be useful to inform and guide the conservation of Earths biodiversity and the services it provides.

Alien Birds, Amphibians and Reptiles of Europe

DAISIE aims to integrate information on current invasions across Europe through an online freely available database of alien species (www.europe-aliens. org, Shirley and Kark 2006). Overall, the DAISIE database includes 55 islands or countries in Europe (including European Russia), Israel and the Macaronesian islands (hereby referred to as Europe). Patterns of alien introductions, their impacts and management tools differ for birds vs. reptiles and amphibians in various ways. Birds are one of the best recorded groups and much better data exists on their introductions. Reptiles and amphibians have smaller numbers of recorded alien species, and information is less detailed in many cases. However, some of the issues concerning aliens of these groups in Europe are similar. For example, prevention seems to be the best strategy to reduce the long-term impacts and costs of dealing with most species. Also, both groups show increase in the number of introduction events during the 20th century, which could be related to rise in human immigration into Europe (Jeschke and Strayer 2006) and in the international trade, both legal and illegal during this period, leading to the deliberate and non-deliberate release of alien birds in the wild (Jenkins 1999). Here we provide information and discussion on each of the two groups and comparisons where relevant. Finally, we provide joint discussion on management options and on future trends.

Rose-ringed parakeet **Psittacula krameri** populations and numbers in Europe : a complete overview

Alien species are considered one of the major causes contributing to the current loss of biodiversity. Over the past few decades, a large and increasing number of alien species have become invasive in many parts of the world. Their impacts range from competition for resources with native species to damage of urban infrastructure. In Europe, over a thousand alien species are now established, of which 74 are birds. Among 12 established alien parrot species in Europe, the Rose-ringed Parakeet (RRP) Psittacula krameri (Scopoli, 1769) is the most abundant and widespread. Since the 1960s, RRPs have established more than 100 wild populations in several European countries. For Western Europe, long-term demographic data indicate the species has grown considerably in number, although some populations have failed to persist. Data is scarce and dispersed for countries in Central, Eastern and Northern Europe. Therefore, here we present detailed demographic data of RRP for 90 populations in 10 European countries. Furthermore, we present information on the status of the species in another 27 European countries, for which previously no data were published. Our synthesis reveals a positive demographic trend across the continent, although locally, some populations appear to have reached carrying capacity.

Interference competition between an invasive parakeet and native bird species at feeding sites

Interference competition has proved to be a factor of successful establishment of invasive species. This type of competition may have a stronger impact when native species have temporal niche overlap with the invasive species. The ring-necked parakeet Psittacula krameri has been successfully introduced in many countries and its interspecific agonistic behavior has already been reported. The purpose of this study is to analyze the territorial and preemptive interference competition between the ring-necked parakeet and native bird species in a recently colonized area. We used an empirical approach by recording video sequences in gardens equipped with bird feeders in winter. Our results showed that the ring-necked parakeet was the most frequent species at the feeders. Several native species showed temporal niche overlap with the ring-necked parakeet, the highest overlap being with the starling Sturnus vulgaris. The starling was also the species most impacted by interference competition with the parakeet. Our study suggests that, by being most frequently present at the feeders, by demonstrating the most agonistic behavior and by hindering access to food of the other species, the ring-necked parakeet is a superior competitor and may compete with native bird species.

Rapid morphological changes, admixture and invasive success in populations of Ring-necked parakeets (Psittacula krameri) established in Europe

The Ring-necked parakeet (Psittacula krameri), native of Asia and Africa, is a very successful invasive species in Europe: it has been present there for over 50xa0years. A recent study showed that European invasive populations occupy a colder climatic niche than in their native range but the establishment of this tropical species in temperate regions remains unexplained. Two main hypotheses may explain the success of Ring-necked parakeet in Europe: admixture between individuals from different origins and/or rapid adaptation to new environmental conditions. In this study, we investigated with molecular data the origin of European populations of Ring-necked parakeets to assess whether these populations result from admixture between individuals from different source populations. We also investigated the morphology of individuals from European populations and from the native range to assess whether the invasive populations have morphologically diverged from their source and could have become adapted to European conditions. We found evidence of admixture in some of the European populations but not all of them. Admixture between individuals from different origins within European populations thus cannot explain alone their invasive success. Conversely, we found that the morphology of the individuals from European populations has diverged from the morphology of native individuals, in a similar direction. Rapid adaptation to European environmental conditions via phenotypic plasticity or natural selection could thus be a factor explaining the invasive success of Ring-necked parakeets in Europe.

“Kill Two Birds with One Stone”: Urban Tree Species Classification Using Bi-Temporal Pléiades Images to Study Nesting Preferences of an Invasive Bird

This study presents the results of object-based classifications assessing the potential of bi-temporal Pleiades images for mapping broadleaf and coniferous tree species potentially used by the ring-necked parakeet Psittacula krameri for nesting in the urban area of Marseille, France. The first classification was performed based solely on a summer Pleiades image (acquired on 28 July 2015) and the second classification based on bi-temporal Pleiades images (a spring image acquired on 24 March 2016 and the summer image). An ensemble of spectral and textural features was extracted from both images and two machine-learning classifiers were used, Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM). Regardless of the classifiers, model results suggest that classification based on bi-temporal Pleiades images produces more satisfying results, with an overall accuracy 11.5–13.9% higher than classification using the single-date image. Textural and spectral features extracted from the blue and the NIR bands were consistently ranked among the most important features. Regardless of the classification scheme, RF slightly outperforms SVM. RF classification using bi-temporal Pleiades images allows identifying 98.5% of the tree species used by the ring-necked parakeet for nesting, highlighting the promising value of remote sensing techniques to assess the ecological requirements of fauna in urban areas.

Integrating data-deficient species in analyses of evolutionary history loss

Abstract There is an increasing interest in measuring loss of phylogenetic diversity and evolutionary distinctiveness which together depict the evolutionary history of conservation interest. Those losses are assessed through the evolutionary relationships between species and species threat status or extinction probabilities. Yet, available information is not always sufficient to quantify the threat status of species that are then classified as data deficient. Data‐deficient species are a crucial issue as they cause incomplete assessments of the loss of phylogenetic diversity and evolutionary distinctiveness. We aimed to explore the potential bias caused by data‐deficient species in estimating four widely used indices: HEDGE, EDGE, PDloss, and Expected PDloss. Second, we tested four different widely applicable and multitaxa imputation methods and their potential to minimize the bias for those four indices. Two methods are based on a best‐ vs. worst‐case extinction scenarios, one is based on the frequency distribution of threat status within a taxonomic group and one is based on correlates of extinction risks. We showed that data‐deficient species led to important bias in predictions of evolutionary history loss (especially high underestimation when they were removed). This issue was particularly important when data‐deficient species tended to be clustered in the tree of life. The imputation method based on correlates of extinction risks, especially geographic range size, had the best performance and enabled us to improve risk assessments. Solving threat status of DD species can fundamentally change our understanding of loss of phylogenetic diversity. We found that this loss could be substantially higher than previously found in amphibians, squamate reptiles, and carnivores. We also identified species that are of high priority for the conservation of evolutionary distinctiveness.

CHLAMYDIA AVIUM DETECTION FROM A RING-NECKED PARAKEET (PSITTACULA KRAMERI) IN FRANCE

&NA; The crossing of host species barriers, through the spreading populations of introduced pet animals that become established in the wild, sets the stage for zoonotic pathogen (re)emergence. A literature review on pathogens that are hosted by the ring‐necked parakeet (Psittacula krameri), a worldwide introduced pet, highlighted local infections of captive birds by chlamydial agents with high sanitary risk for human health in its introduced range. We searched for these pathogens through cloacal swabs collected from 85 individuals in an invasive population established in the suburban areas of Paris (Ile‐de‐France) from 5 localities during the winter seasons between 2011 and 2014. Based on quantitative PCR analysis, Chlamydiaceae shedding was detected at too low levels for species identification in 5 birds, but 1 parakeet (found dead) was positive for Chlamydiaceae typed as Chlamydia avium. The only known hosts recorded for C. avium in Europe are feral pigeons (Columba livia) and captive psittacines. This result raises the question of the sanitary risks associated with new pathogen transmission from exotic pets released in the wild, which could locally affect birds and potentially people who feed birds.

Invasion history and demographic processes associated with rapid morphological changes in the Red-whiskered bulbul established on tropical islands.

The Red‐whiskered bulbul is a very successful invasive bird species. Morphological differences have been reported among individuals inhabiting the humid and dry coasts of Reunion Island, in a 30‐year‐old population. This suggests a capacity for rapid local adaptation which could explain the general invasive success of this species. However, the origin and invasion history of this population is unknown. It is therefore not possible to establish with certainty the cause of these morphological differences. Here, we investigated the invasion history of populations of Red‐whiskered bulbul established on Reunion Island, Mauritius and Oahu (three geographically similar tropical islands) to assess the link between invasion history and morphological changes in these populations. We first assessed the source(s) of the invasive populations. We then compared the morphology of the individuals between the invasive and native populations and between the dry and humid coasts of invaded islands. Finally, we inferred the invasion history of the invasive populations to investigate the role of neutral processes (e.g. founder effect and drift) on morphology. We found that the invasive populations have a similar origin and that the morphology of the individuals in these populations has diverged in a similar way from the native range, suggesting a convergent adaptation to tropical islands. Like on Reunion, we found differences in morphology between the dry and humid coasts on Mauritius. These morphological differences can be explained by invasion history on Reunion but not on Mauritius. Both neutral evolution and adaptation thus shape the morphology of invasive Red‐whiskered bulbuls.