Philippe Lasaygues

An alternative ultrasonic method for measuring the elastic properties of cortical bone

We studied the elastic properties of bone to analyze its mechanical behavior. The basic principles of ultrasonic methods are now well established for varying isotropic media, particularly in the field of biomedical engineering. However, little progress has been made in its application to anisotropic materials. This is largely due to the complex nature of wave propagation in these media. In the present study, the theory of elastic waves is essential because it relates the elastic moduli of a material to the velocity of propagation of these waves along arbitrary directions in a solid. Transducers are generally placed in contact with the samples which are often cubes with parallel faces that are difficult to prepare. The ultrasonic method used here is original, a rough preparation of the bone is sufficient and the sample is rotated. Moreover, to analyze heterogeneity of the structure we measure velocities in different points on the sample. The aim of the present study was to determine in vitro the anisotropic elastic properties of cortical bones. For this purpose, our method allowed measurement of longitudinal and transverse velocities (C(L) and C(T)) in longitudinal (fiber direction) and the radial directions (orthogonal to the fiber direction) of compact bones. Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio nu, were then deduced from the velocities measured considering the compact bone as transversely isotropic or orthotropic. The results are in line with those of other methods.

Ultrasonic characterization of orthotropic elastic bovine bones

The aim of the present study was to determine the mechanical properties of bovine bones. An ultrasonic method was used to determine acoustical parameters such as the longitudinal and transverse velocities in the longitudinal and two radial directions of compact bone, i.e., in all directions of the plane. Waves propagating through bovine femoral bones were studied using an ultrasonic scanner for linear and sectorial scanning. The mechanical parameters of compact bone, such the Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio in the orthotropic case, were then determined from the measured velocities. The results are in line with those in the literature.

High Resolution Low Frequency Ultrasonic Tomography

Ultrasonic reflection tomography results from a linearization of the inverse acoustic scattering problem, named the inverse Born approximation. The goal of ultrasonic reflection tomography is to obtain reflectivity images from backscattered measurements. This is a Fourier synthesis problem and the first step is to correctly cover the frequency space of the object. For this inverse problem, we use the classical algorithm of tomographic reconstruction by summation of filtered backprojections. In practice, only a limited number of views are available with our mechanical rig, typically 180, and the frequency bandwidth of the pulses is very limited, typically one octave. The resolving power of the system is then limited by the bandwidth of the pulse. Low and high frequencies can be restored by use of a deconvolution algorithm that enhances resolution. We used a deconvolution technique based on the Papoulis method. The advantage of this technique is conservation of the overall frequency information content of the signals. The enhancement procedure was tested by imaging a square aluminium rod with a cross-section less than the wavelength. In this application, the central frequency of the transducer was 250 kHz so that the central wavelength was 6 mm whereas the cross-section of the rod was 4 mm. Although the Born approximation was not theoretically valid in this case (high contrast), a good reconstruction was obtained.

Development of an Anthropomorphic Breast Phantom for Combined PET, B-Mode Ultrasound and Elastographic Imaging

Combining the advantages of different imaging modalities leads to improved clinical results. For example, ultrasound provides good real-time structural information without any radiation and PET provides sensitive functional information. For the ongoing ClearPEM-Sonic project combining ultrasound and PET for breast imaging, we developed a dual-modality PET/Ultrasound (US) phantom. The phantom reproduces the acoustic and elastic properties of human breast tissue and allows labeling the different tissues in the phantom with different concentrations of FDG. The phantom was imaged with a whole-body PET/CT and with the Supersonic Imagine Aixplorer system. This system allows both B-mode US and shear wave elastographic imaging. US elastography is a new imaging method for displaying the tissue elasticity distribution. It was shown to be useful in breast imaging. We also tested the phantom with static elastography. A 6D magnetic positioning system allows fusing the images obtained with the two modalities. ClearPEM-Sonic is a project of the Crystal Clear Collaboration and the European Centre for Research on Medical Imaging (CERIMED).

Cancellous and cortical bone imaging by reflected tomography.

This paper deals with the inverse scattering problem observed when ultrasonic waves are used to analyze biological media. The objective is to image cancellous and cortical bone by ultrasonic reflected tomography (URT). Because strong contrast and high absorbance bodies such as bones cannot be imaged at usual ultrasonic high frequencies (>1 MHz), we adapted for low-frequency URT (< 1 MHz) our tomographic set-up and reconstruction and acquisition tools, previously developed for weakly scattered media. Indeed, when the frequency of the transducer decreases, the penetration length of the wave increases, which unfortunately makes resolution poor, inappropriate for bone imagery. To improve resolution, we extend the generalized inversion in the complementary bandwidth of the electro-acoustic set-up (Papoulis deconvolution). This resolution enhancement for human porous vertebrae and human and animal femur showed that high-resolution images can be obtained with low-frequency URT.

Literature review of acoustic and ultrasonic tomography in standing trees

Key messageHigh-resolution imaging is possible if high-frequency sensors are used together with a signal-processing and inversion algorithm that is well suited to a low signal-to-noise ratio and the effect of wood anisotropy.AbstractWood is a biological growth medium, and given that standing trees adapt themselves in their growth to environmental conditions, their material properties vary with age. These changes result in variations that are far more complex than anisotropy. Wood quality and intraspecific variability can thus be studied to gain an understanding of the development mechanisms of trees, and this can be useful for clonal selection and the management of tree communities. A number of techniques are available to determine wood properties in standing trees, but the signal-processing approaches currently used are not always robust and do not always provide the image resolution needed in the particular cases of acoustic or ultrasonic tomography. This review paper thus aims to present important aspects that should be taken into account when using tomography techniques and addresses a number of open problems. A brief review of current non-destructive wood imaging techniques is initially presented followed by a comparison of the protocols, methods and models used in acoustic and ultrasonic tomography. The devices cited were studied in terms of measurement systems and signal processing. The analysis aimed to highlight and analyze the advantages and disadvantages of each device and describe challenges and trends. The effect of various parameters is discussed: frequency, signal-to-noise ratio, number of sensors and inversion algorithm. General conclusions are then drawn in relation to future signal-processing work in the acoustic and ultrasonic tomography of standing trees.

Conformal ultrasound imaging system for anatomical breast inspection

Ultrasound tomography has considerable potential as a means of breast cancer detection because it reduces the operator-dependency observed in echography. A half-ring transducer array was designed based on breast anatomy, to obtain reflectivity images of the ductolobular structures using tomographic reconstruction procedures. The 3-MHz transducer array comprises 1024 elements set in a 190-degree circular arc with a radius of 100 mm. The front-end electronics incorporate 32 independent parallel transmit/receive channels and a 32-to-1024 multiplexer unit. The transmit and receive circuitries have a variable sampling frequency of up to 80 MHz and 12-bit precision. Arbitrary waveforms are synthesized to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and to increase the spatial resolution when working with low-contrast objects. The setup was calibrated with academic objects and a needle hydrophone to develop the data correction tools and specify the properties of the system. The backscattering field was recorded using a restricted aperture, and tomographic acquisitions were performed with a pair of 0.08-mm-diameter steel wires, a low-contrast 2-D breast phantom, and a breast-shaped phantom containing inclusions. Data were processed with dedicated correction tools and a pulse compression technique. Objects were reconstructed using the elliptical back-projection algorithm.

Contrast and velocity ultrasonic tomography of long bones

Our objective is to derive quantitative sound speed images of cortical bone using ultrasonic transmission tomography. Cortical bone is a highly refracting medium, i.e., the sound velocity changes abruptly across the interface between soft tissue and bone. It results in a loss of data compared to classical tomography in soft tissues. In order to correct for degradation by refraction effects, the classical acquisition procedure of projection data is modified; the transducers are oriented according to Snells law of refraction with the aim of optimizing the sound propagation as parallel longitudinal rays inside the bone. This strategy allows the subsequent application of straight-ray reconstruction by the backprojection technique, which is a classical procedure in x-ray tomography. The method is validated with Plexiglas® solid cylinders and tubes immersed in water. Improved sound velocity images are then derived using conventional Radon transform of the experimental time-of-flight data. The method is then extended to in vitro human femur immersed in water. The geometry of the bone cross-section is reconstructed from measurements using ultrasonic reflection tomography. The result is then introduced in the calculation of the position and orientation of the transducers, which are associated with the parallel acoustical paths in bone in the transmission measurements. The procedure leads to significant restoration enhancement over the non corrected image. The mean value of the velocity of 3,200 ms−1 in the cortical shell is consistent with the values known from literature. These preliminary quantitative images using combined reflected and transmission ultrasound show promise for bone imaging.

Ultrasonic tomography of green wood using a non-parametric imaging algorithm with reflected waves

Abstract• Ultrasonic computed tomography in reflection was used to assess the integrity of green wood. Qualitative reflectivity images were obtained from back-scattered measurements by reflection tomography, like ultrasound in medical applications.• The reconstruction algorithm was designed using, in particular, a linear approximation of the forward problem (Born approximation) and based on the assumption that a transversal cross section of wood is isotropic. The experimental device was composed of only one rotating emitter—receiver transducer to record and compute the projections. In this specific case, a tomographic projection was directly associated with a recorded signal. The qualitative aspect of this imaging technique was validated by performing a numerical simulation and tested on a small diameter green wood (Picea abies) log.• The images obtained were geometrically accurate considering the internal inclusions. It was, however, not possible in the simulation to differentiate the object shape from the background (coupling medium) because the reflectivity value associated with the object was too low. The image obtained with the spruce sample mainly showed the position of the bark as indicated by a very high contrast area. The proportion of transmitted energy was, however, sufficient to reconstruct the artificial inclusion within the sample.Résumé• L’imagerie tomographique ultrasonore en réflexion a été employée pour évaluer l’intégrité de bois à l’état vert. La tomographie en réflexion a permis d’obtenir des images qualitatives de réflectivité à partir de mesures rétro — diffusées analogues à l’échographie en médecine.• L’algorithme de reconstruction était conçu en utilisant notamment une approximation linéaire du problème direct (l’approximation de Born) et en supposant que la section transverse du bois était isotrope. Le dispositif expérimental était composé d’un seul transducteur émetteur — récepteur en rotation pour enregistrer et calculer les projections. Dans ce cas spécifique, une projection tomographique était directement associée au signal enregistré. L’aspect qualitatif de cette technique d’imagerie a été validé en effectuant une simulation numérique et a été testé sur un rondin de faible diamètre à l’état vert (Picea abies).• Les images obtenues étaient géométriquement justes en se référant aux inclusions internes. Il n’a cependant pas été possible lors de la simulation de discriminer l’objet de l’arrière plan (milieu couplant) en raison de la trop faible valeur de réflectivité associée à l’objet. L’image obtenue avec l’échantillon d’épicéa a principalement montré la position de l’écorce marquée par un très fort contraste. La proportion d’énergie transmise a cependant été suffisante pour reconstruire l’inclusion artificielle à l’intérieur de l’échantillon.

Progress towards in vitro quantitative imaging of human femur using compound quantitative ultrasonic tomography

The objective of this study is to make cross-sectional ultrasonic quantitative tomography of the diaphysis of long bones. Ultrasonic propagation in bones is affected by the severe mismatch between the acoustic properties of this biological solid and those of the surrounding soft medium, namely, the soft tissues in vivo or water in vitro. Bone imaging is then a nonlinear inverse-scattering problem. In this paper, we showed that in vitro quantitative images of sound velocities in a human femur cross section could be reconstructed by combining ultrasonic reflection tomography (URT), which provides images of the macroscopic structure of the bone, and ultrasonic transmission tomography (UTT), which provides quantitative images of the sound velocity. For the shape, we developed an image-processing tool to extract the external and internal boundaries and cortical thickness measurements. For velocity mapping, we used a wavelet analysis tool adapted to ultrasound, which allowed us to detect precisely the time of flight from the transmitted signals. A brief review of the ultrasonic tomography that we developed using correction algorithms of the wavepaths and compensation procedures are presented. Also shown are the first results of our analyses on models and specimens of long bone using our new iterative quantitative protocol.