Phillip B. Watts

Anthropometric profiles of elite male and female competitive sport rock climbers

Over the past few years, competitive rock climbing--for a long time a popular sport in Europe--has increased in popularity in North America. An annual international World Cup competition circuit was started in 1988 which has shown growing success and a definite elite group of athletes has emerged. Descriptive anthropometric profiles of elite climbers have been unavailable. In order to fill this information void, 39 world-class climbers (21 males, 18 females) were assessed immediately prior to competition at an international World Cup sport climbing championship. All of the subjects tested were competition semi-finalists and, among these, seven males and six females advanced to the finals. The variables measured included age, years of climbing experience, height, body mass, height-weight ratio, sum of seven skinfolds, % body fat, fat-free mass, hand and arm volumes via plethysmography, average of right and left grip strengths, grip strength to body mass ratio (SMR), and climbing ability defined as the most difficult route climbed on lead. The results indicated that elite sport climbers are of small to moderate stature and exhibit very low % fat, moderate grip strength and high SMR when compared with other athletic groups. Values for the height-weight ratio and sum of seven skinfolds in the female finalists were very near those of the male finalists, which may indicate that reduction of body mass and % fat are primary adaptations in these female athletes. Climbing ability was predictable from SMR and % fat, though the R2 was low.

Anthropometry of young competitive sport rock climbers

Background: Adult elite competitive rock climbers are small in stature with low body mass and very low body fat percentage. These characteristics have generated concern that young climbers may attempt body mass reduction to extreme levels with adverse consequences for health and performance. No published anthropometry data for young competitive climbers exist. Objective: To describe the general anthropometric characteristics of junior US competitive rock climbers. Methods: Ninety subjects (mean (SD) age 13.5 (3.0) years) volunteered to participate. All competed at the Junior Competition Climbers Association US National Championship. Anthropometric variables, including height, mass, body mass index (BMI), arm span, biiliocristal and biacromial breadths, skinfold thickness at nine anatomical sites, forearm and hand volumes, and handgrip strength, were measured. Selected variables were expressed as ratio values and as normative age and sex matched centile scores where appropriate. A control group (n = 45) of non-climbing children and youths who participated in a variety of sports activities, including basketball, cross country running, cross country skiing, soccer, and swimming, underwent the same testing procedures in the Exercise Science Laboratory of Northern Michigan University. Results: Mean (SD) self reported climbing ability was 11.80 (1.20), or about 5.11d on the Yosemite decimal system scale. The mean (SD) experience level was 3.2 (1.9) years, and subjects competed in 10 (5) organised competitions over a 12 month period. Despite similarity in age, there were significant differences (p<0.01) between climbers and control subjects for height, mass, centile scores for height and mass, ratio of arm span to height (“ape index”), biiliocristal/biacromial ratio, sum of seven and sum of nine skinfolds, estimated body fat percentage, and handgrip/mass ratio. Despite significantly lower skinfold sums and estimated body fat percentage, no differences were found between climbers and controls for absolute BMI or BMI expressed as a centile score. Conclusions: Young competitive climbers have similar general anthropometric characteristics to elite adult climbers. These include relatively small stature, low body mass, low sums of skinfolds, and high handgrip to mass ratio. Relative to age matched athletic non-climbers, climbers appear to be more linear in body type with narrow shoulders relative to hips. Differences in body composition exist between climbers and non-climbing athletes despite similar BMI values.

Physiological comparison of uphill roller skiing: diagonal stride versus double pole

The physiological responses to treadmill roller skiing with the double pole (DP) and diagonal stride (DS) techniques were compared at 1.7% and 7.1% grades among eight cross-country ski racers. Oxygen uptake (VO2) requirements were found to be lower (P < 0.05) for DP at the 1.7% grade, but similar at the 7.1% grade. In contrast, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and percentages of technique-specific peak VO2 were similar between techniques at the 1.7% grade, and lower (P < 0.05) for DS at the 7.1% grade. RPE and percentages of technique-specific peak VO2 were strongly correlated (r = 0.89). The primary findings indicate that 1) the economies for DP and DS are dependent upon the incline, 2) it is possible for the economy of DP to be greater than DS although the percentages of technique-specific peak VO2 are similar, and 3) the perceived effort associated with the use of DP and DS reflects the percentage of technique-specific peak VO2.

Reliability of Peak Forces During a Finger Curl Motion Common in Rock Climbing

This study was designed to examine the reliability of peak finger force during 4-finger curling in a sample of expert level young competitive rock climbers. The participants (N = 31; 16 boys, 15 girls; 13.0 ± 2.7 years of age) completed 2 maximal finger curls with each hand. Finger force was measured via a piezoelectric force sensor fitted with a plate to accept the first digits of the 4 fingers. Force was applied to the plate/sensor by the fingers via a 3-sec maximal contraction. Reliability of the finger curl for each hand was estimated using a one-way repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) and intraclass test-retest correlation. Reliability of the measurement for the left hand was estimated at R = .947 (.95 confidence interval, .891-.975). Reliability for the right hand was estimated at R = .902 (.95 confidence interval, .796-.953). No significant ( p > .05) differences were found between the 2 trials for either hand. Peak force measurement during maximal finger curls using this protocol and population was judged to be reliable.

Comparative grading scales, statistical analyses, climber descriptors and ability grouping: International Rock Climbing Research Association position statement

Abstract The research base for rock climbing has expanded substantially in the past three decades as worldwide interest in the sport has grown. An important trigger for the increasing research attention has been the transition of the sport to a competitive as well as recreational activity and the potential inclusion of sport climbing in the Olympic schedule. The International Rock Climbing Research Association (IRCRA) was formed in 2011 to bring together climbers, coaches and researchers to share knowledge and promote collaboration. This position statement was developed during and after the 2nd IRCRA Congress which was held in Pontresina, in September 2014. The aim of the position statement is to bring greater uniformity to the descriptive and statistical methods used in reporting rock climbing research findings. To date there is a wide variation in the information provided by researchers regarding the climbers’ characteristics and also in the approaches employed to convert from climbing grading scales to a numeric scale suitable for statistical analysis. Our paper presents details of recommended standards of reporting that should be used for reporting climber characteristics and provides a universal scale for the conversion of climbing grades to a number system for statistical analysis.

Oxygen uptake and energy expenditure for children during rock climbing activity.

The purpose of this study was to measure oxygen uptake and energy expenditure in children during rock climbing activity. 29 children (age = 10.9 ± 1.7 yr) participated in the study. A commercially available rock climbing structure with ample features for submaximal effort climbing provided continuous terrain. Participants were instructed to climb at a comfortable pace. Following an initial 5-min rest, each child climbed one sustained 5-min bout followed by 5-min sitting recovery for a total of 10 min (SUS). This was immediately followed by five 1-min climbing + 1-min recovery intervals for a second total of 10 min (INT). Expired air was analyzed continuously. Energy expenditure (EE) was determined via the Weir method for 10-s intervals throughout the full protocol. The total energy expenditure in kilocalories during the 10-min SUS period was 34.3 ± 11.3 kcal. Energy expenditure during the 10-min INT period averaged 39.3 ± 13.1 kcal and was significantly higher than during SUS (p < .05). The mean total EE for SUS + INT was 73.7 ± 24.2 kcal. EE was correlated with body mass; r = .86. The rock climbing tasks employed in this study produced EE levels similar to what have been reported in children for stair climbing, sports/games activities, and easy jogging.

Changes in EMG and Finger Force With Repeated Hangs From the Hands in Rock Climbers

The nature and degree of fatigue in muscles that control finger position during repeated sustained efforts in rock climbing have not been described. The purpose of this study was to identify changes in maximum hang time and forearm electromyogram (EMG) during repeated maximum duration hangs from a simulated rock feature. A second objective was to determine the effect of different recovery times between hangs upon changes in finger force. Five experienced rock climbers performed 2 test sessions on different days in a randomized order. Each session involved 8 repetitions of a maximum duration hang with either 1 min (R1) or 3 min (R3) resting recovery between hangs. Finger force (FF) was measured for the right hand via a piezoelectric force sensor fitted with a plate to accept the distal digits of four fingers. Peak EMG (EMGPK) and EMG Area (EMGAREA) were recorded from the anterior forearm for each hang and standardized as percent of maximum FF EMG prior to statistical analysis. Hang duration progressively decreased over repetitions but tended to plateau around repetition 5 for both R1 and R3 conditions. A significant difference was found for both recovery conditions and repetitions (p<.05) as well as a significant interaction of the two factors (p<.05) for hang duration. There were no significant differences for EMGPK among repetitions or between recovery conditions (p>.05). EMGAREA decreased initially with repeated hangs during both R1 and R3 but this trend tended to plateau at repetition 3 for the R3 condition. A significant difference was found in EMGAREA for both recovery conditions and trials (p<.05) as well as a significant interaction of the two factors (p<.05). Mean FF decreased between pre- and post-hangs for both R1 and R3 however the difference was not significant. It was concluded that the overall decline in hang time is less with 3 min recovery vs 1 min recovery between hangs. Peak EMG does not appear to change despite this evidence of fatigue. A 3 min recovery interval between hang repetitions decreases the magnitude of fatigue experienced and enables a greater EMGAREA per hang.