Phillip G. Post

Self-Controlled Amount of Practice Benefits Learning of a Motor Skill

Abstract Self-control over factors involving task-related information (e.g., feedback) can enhance motor learning. It is unknown if these benefits extend to manipulations that do not directly affect such information. The purpose of this study was to determine if self-control over the amount of practice would also facilitate learning. Participants learned to throw a dart using their nonpreferred hand. The self-control (SC) group decided when to stop practice. The yoked group completed the same number of trials as their SC counterparts. Results revealed the SC group was more accurate during transfer and in recalling the number of trials completed. These findings indicate that self-control benefits extend to factors that do not directly alter task-related information.

The effects of self-controlled video feedback on the learning of the basketball set shot

Allowing learners to control some aspect of instructional support (e.g., augmented feedback) appears to facilitate motor skill acquisition. No studies, however, have examined self-controlled (SC) video feedback without the provision of additional attentional cueing. The purpose of this study was to extend previous SC research using video feedback about movement form for the basketball set shot without explicitly directing attention to specific aspects of the movement. The SC group requested video feedback of their performance following any trial during the acquisition phase. The yoked group received feedback according to a schedule created by a SC counterpart. During acquisition participants were also allowed to view written instructional cues at any time. Results revealed that the SC group had significantly higher form scores during the transfer phase and utilized the instructional cues more frequently during acquisition. Post-training questionnaire responses indicated no preference for requesting or receiving feedback following good trials as reported by Chiviacowsky and Wulf (2002, 2005). The nature of the task was such that participants could have assigned both positive and negative evaluations to different aspects of the movement during the same trial. Thus, the lack of preferences along with the similarity in scores for feedback and no-feedback trials may simply have reflected this complexity. Importantly, however, the results indicated that SC video feedback conferred a learning benefit without the provision of explicit additional attentional cueing.

The Effects of Imagery Training on Swimming Performance: An Applied Investigation

A multiple-baseline design was used to examine the influence of an imagery intervention on the performance of swimmers’ times on a thousand-yard practice set. Performance times for four swimmers were collected over a 15-week period during preseason training. The intervention took place over a 3-week period and was introduced after the fourth week of the study. The results revealed that three out of four participants significantly improved their times on the one thousand-yard practice set after being introduced to the imagery intervention. The results are discussed in terms of the implications of using imagery to improve athletes performance on continuous tasks.

Adventure Racing The Experiences of Participants in the Everglades Challenge

There has been little research devoted to understanding the sporting experience of Adventure Racing (AR) participants. Given the possible psychological benefits of AR participation, this investigation was undertaken to obtain additional insight into these competitors’ experience of participating in the Everglades Challenge. Existential phenomenological interviews were conducted with 10 participants ranging in age from 34 to 64 years who took part in the 2011 Everglades Challenge. Qualitative analysis of the transcripts revealed a total of 498 meaning units that were further grouped into subthemes, majors themes, and a primary ground. A final thematic structure revealed Adventure as the primary ground for the four major themes of Pushing Limits, Community, Preparation, and Natural Elements. The results suggest that AR can be transformational in many ways and that it provides an avenue for exploring personal meaning and promoting psychological benefits.

Self-control over combined video feedback and modeling facilitates motor learning

Allowing learners to control the video presentation of knowledge of performance (KP) or an expert model during practice has been shown to facilitate motor learning (Aiken, Fairbrother, & Post, 2012; Wulf, Raupach, & Pfeiffer, 2005). Split-screen replay features now allow for the simultaneous presentation of these modes of instructional support. It is uncertain, however, if such a combination incorporated into a self-control protocol would yield similar benefits seen in earlier self-control studies. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of self-controlled split-screen replay on the learning of a golf chip shot. Participants completed 60 practice trials, three administrations of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, and a questionnaire on day one. Retention and transfer tests and a final motivation inventory were completed on day two. Results revealed significantly higher form and accuracy scores for the self-control group during transfer. The self-control group also had significantly higher scores on the perceived competence subscale, reported requesting feedback mostly after perceived poor trials, and recalled a greater number of critical task features compared to the yoked group. The findings for the performance measures were consistent with previous self-control research.

Self-Reported Responses to Player Profile Questions Show Consistency with the Use of Complex Attentional Strategies by Expert Horseshoe Pitchers

The advantages on an external focus of attention have been demonstrated for a variety of sport tasks. The constrained action hypothesis (Wulf et al., 2001) argues that focusing externally on the movement effect results in the use of automated processes for movement control. In contrast, focusing internally in an attempt to control the movements of the body disrupts normally automated processes and degrades performance. Research on experts, however, suggests that they may adopt more complex attentional strategies. The present study provided a unique opportunity to examine expert horseshoe players’ attentional strategies as indicated by their self-reported responses to questions included in a National Horseshoe Pitchers Association (NHPA) player profile questionnaire. Responses submitted by 83 top NHPA players were examined to determine the frequency of references to the use of internal and external focus points and identify categories related to attentional strategies. Results indicated that the large majority of players reported using focus points that are consistent with an external focus of attention and that their thoughts corresponded to one or more categories related to technique, mental focus or concentration, general success, use of external focus cues, and emotional control. The findings are consistent with the view that experts may adopt complex attentional strategies that encompass both an external focus and thoughts about a variety of other performance related factors.

The Effects of a PETTLEP Imagery Intervention on the Learning of a Complex Motor Skill

Abstract Prior research has largely suggested that imagery is an effective mental skill for enhancing learners’ skill acquisition of cognitive tasks (Hird, Landers, Thomas, & Horan, 1991; Ryan & Simons, 1981). However, additional research is needed to determine if imagery can benefit learners’ skill acquisition of motor tasks. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of a four-week PETTLEP imagery intervention on learners’ skill acquisition of a standing long jump. Seventy-six female college students (M age=20.6 yrs; SD=1.77) were assigned into one of four groups: physical practice (PP), imagery plus physical practice (IP+PP), imagery practice (IP), or a control group (CON). The study consisted of three phases: pre-test, intervention, and a post-test. During the intervention phase the PP group completed 80 physical jumps; IP+PP group completed 40 imaged and 40 physical jumps; the IP group completed 80 imaged jumps; and the CON group engaged in a distraction task. During each experimental phase participants filled out the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) to assess self-reported motivation. Results revealed that the PP and IP+PP groups outperformed the CON group on the post-test. From pre to post, the PP and IP+PP groups improved, the IP group maintained performance, and CON group decreased in performance. All of the training groups’ reported significantly higher effort/importance ratings on the IMI during the intervention and post-test phases compared to the CON group. Results extend prior research by demonstrating that imagery combined with physical practice can benefit the learning of a complex motor task and that imagery alone may assist learners in maintaining initial skill proficiency.

A Phenomenological Investigation of Divers’ Lived Experience of Imagery

Abstract Phenomenological interviews were conducted with 15 skilled divers (M=29.87 years; SD=8.30), ranging in competitive level from college to Olympic, to explore their lived experience of using imagery. Qualitative analysis of interview data revealed a total of 696 meaning units which were used to produce a final thematic structure consisting of four higher order themes: time and place, perfecting the dive, mentally preparing, and constructing the image. The results suggest that skilled divers’ imagery is an active process (i.e., includes different perspectives, speeds, and overt movements) and they use imagery for several purposes (i.e., physical and psychological). Results unique to the present study were divers’ manipulations of imagery speed, the incorporation of body movements during their imagery rehearsal to enhance the kinesthetic sensation associated with their desired image, the use of imagery aids to augment their imagery practice, and the use of imagery to focus and avoid distractions during competition. These specific nuances of divers’ use of imagery offer several practical applications for sport psychology consultants and coaches interested in implementing imagery interventions with this athlete population.

Brain Wave Activity Differences in Task Complexity and Perspective During Imagery

Abstract The present study investigated how task complexity and imagery perspective affected brain wave activity during imagery using electroencephalography (EEG) measures. EEG recordings were collected from 21 collegiate soccer players (male n = 14, female n = 7; M age = 20.71 years, SD = 1.55) visualizing from two perspectives (internal and external) on two motor tasks (simple and complex). Results reveal no differences in alpha brainwave activity during imagery when adopting different imagery perspectives (internal and external) or when imagining a complex or simple task. Results indicate that the left hemisphere was processing more information during imagery of the simple task, as measured by greater alpha brain wave activity in the upper values (11–13 Hz) in the right hemisphere as compared to the left. Findings indicate that the main area of the brain where this activity is different is the temporal lobe (lower and upper alpha levels), which is associated with the processing of auditory information, visual recognition, comprehension and production of language (Corr, 2006). Results imply that guided imagery scripts may interfere with athletes’ imagery experiences as they appear to be devoting greater cognitive resources to processing audio information.