Phimphakan Lebel

Places, Chains, and Plates: Governing Transitions in the Shrimp Aquaculture Production-Consumption System

Abstract The shrimp production-consumption system is governed by a diverse and dynamic array of actors each drawing on institutions at various levels, from local through national to international. But, for the most part, the politics of consumption (plates), chains, and places are disconnected. Instead, shrimp producers face a myriad of institutional and consumer demands and the sustainability of the shrimp aquaculture production-consumption system is not merely a technical problem to be solved by better site selection and management of ponds. Instead, campaigns for, and against, consuming certain kinds of shrimp are launched in remote corners of the globe and standards, codes, and quality assurance schemes are developed and promoted by equally diverse set of actors, to guide and regulate practices of shrimp farmers and food processors. Furthermore, most initiatives take place with little or no consultation with shrimp farmers or the communities living in shrimp growing areas. Efforts to improve sustainability will require much greater attention to ways different stakeholders, in particular, shrimp farmers and affected communities in growing areas, are brought together with other actors, to deliberate and assess impacts, and to negotiate fairer distribution of risks and benefits in a sustainable production-consumption system. Associations based in producer locales and emerging platforms that bridge these arenas would be a good place to start. A Chinese version of this articles abstract is available online at: www.informaworld.com/rglo

Women Farm Fish Gender and Commercial Fish Cage Culture on the Upper Ping River, Northern Thailand

Abstract Studies from around the world underline the work of women in household-based aquaculture. Many extension and rural development programs and some commercial activities target women. Over the past decade, a tilapia fish cage industry has emerged on the Upper Ping River in northern Thailand. We interviewed 38 fish farmers, both women and men, about their practices and decision-making behavior and exploring gender relations. In addition, we collected quantitative data from 275 fish farms that allowed comparison of farming practices of women and men, and in a second survey compared 200 households that have farmed fish with 200 that have not to explore gender issues in access and decision-making. Women are frequently engaged in a day-to-day management of fi sh farms, most often working as part of a household team, but sometimes in senior management positions. Women attend trainings, and their experience and skills are largely recognized by male counterparts. Fishfarms managed by men, women, or jointly yield similar profits. Women who farm fish for commercial profit are often empowered by such engagement within households. But empowerment in one arena does not easily translate into decision-making authority in others; few women hold real authority in community affairs and those who do so have primarily risen to prominence within women’s groups or with respect to women’s issues. Successful engagement in aquaculture, arguably, contributed to such success, but also benefi ted from a social position relative to both women and men.

Learning about climate-related risks: decisions of Northern Thailand fish farmers in a role-playing simulation game

River-based cage aquaculture in Northern Thailand involves dealing with a number of climate- and weather-related risks. The purpose of this study was to improve understanding of how farmers make investment decisions in their fish farms when faced with risks from floods that are imperfectly known, and which may be changing. A role-playing simulation game was created to capture some of the key features of the decision-making context and explored with farmers in the field. In-depth interviews were conducted post-game to reflect on strategies used in the game as compared to in practice. As hypothesized, more frequent or larger impact floods reduced cumulative profits. Farmers reduced their stocking densities when playing in games with high likelihood of floods, but did not do so in games with large impacts when a flood occurred. Contrary to initial expectations, farmers were less likely to learn from experience—choose the optimal density and thus improve score within a game—when floods were common or had large impacts. Farmers learnt most when risks were decreasing and least when they were increasing. Providing information about likelihoods prior to a game had no impact on performance or decisions. The methods and findings of this study underline the importance of understanding decision-making behaviour around risks for climate risk management. The novel combination of experimental, role-playing, and qualitative methods revealed limitations in common assumptions about the ease of learning about risks from previous experiences. The findings also suggest that decision-support systems for aquaculture need to take into account how recent experiences, understanding of information, and other factors influence risk perceptions and decisions.

Tilapia diseases and management in river-based cage aquaculture in northern Thailand

ABSTRACT A total of 662 farmers who rear tilapia in river-based cages in Northern Thailand were interviewed on their knowledge and perception on disease constraints and their control measures. Most farms (84%) had disease problems in the last two years. Exophthalmia ranked higher than other clinical signs. Most farmers noticed that the risk of disease problems was similar every month. Most (95%) believed that fish diseases were caused by bacterial pathogens. To treat perceived disease outbreaks, most farmers (96%) removed infected and dead fish and applied, usually inappropriately, antibiotics. As disease prevention through good management is better than treatment, farmers and fish disease experts could use these research findings as a tool to work together to develop better control strategies.

Access to Fish Cage Aquaculture in the Ping River, Northern Thailand

Aquaculture in rivers and other public water bodies raises issues of access and property rights. Over the past few years an industry has developed around the rearing of hybrid red and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) in cages in the Ping River in northern Thailand. In this article we report on a study of how households gain access to river cage sites to farm fish. The findings are based on a case-control study of 400 households, half of which had a history of fish farming and half which did not. Additional information was gathered from qualitative in-depth interviews with 93 stakeholders. Households with good access to farming sites, financial capital, and social networks are more likely to farm fish. Proximity to the river front was a very important factor and operated at a micro-level within villages with river borders. Land and vehicle assets were also associated with fish farming—more so than monthly income levels—probably because they reflect access to credit. Social capital measured as belonging to various kinds of groups was also associated with fish farming, but may have been in part an outcome rather than a pre-requisite. Many fish farmers start through encouragement and invitations by firms or the fisheries department. Sites for cage aquaculture in rivers have characteristics somewhere between a private and a club good: those who don’t live near the river are usually excluded, but rivalry for sites among those who live close becomes an issue with congestion of farms arising from expansion in number of cages or other factors that reduce availability of suitable rearing sites like variability in climate, water flows, water quality, and government regulations.

Emotions, attitudes, and appraisal in the management of climate-related risks by fish farmers in Northern Thailand

Many previous studies have documented that farmers are risk-averse, while other studies have shown that farmers analyze and estimate risks. Conventional risk aversion measures and analytical judgment often do not fully explain decision behavior. Thus, it may be necessary to consider emotions. The objective of this study was to enhance understanding of the interactions between attitudes, analysis, and emotions in making risk decisions. The study used a mixture of methods, including: a tablet game, risk aversion scales, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions with fish cage farmers in Northern Thailand. There was no significant difference in risk aversion with respect to gender, age group, or region. Having sufficient capital made it possible to take more risks. Recently being impacted by floods or droughts, or being very concerned with climate change, was not associated with taking fewer risks. Measures of risk aversion did not predict risk decisions. Feeling worried, concerned, anxious, or stressed were the most common negative emotions referred to in interviews. Fear was a reason for not taking risks. Common positive emotions were joy, excitement, and feeling relaxed or relieved. Men who expressed feeling excited or thrilled chose riskier, higher stocking densities in games than women. A common belief was that men were quicker and more confident when making decisions. Another was that emotions had little impact on decisions, but were a response to success and failure – a claim inconsistent with other findings that imply emotions are also important prior to stocking decisions, and while waiting for the harvest. Fear and anxiety in the period prior to harvest may help motivate risk management practices, such as close monitoring and aeration. In conclusion, emotions may play a more important role in making decisions about climate-related risks than was previously recognized.

Policy narratives help maintain institutional traps in the governance of floods in Thailand

Abstract The governance of floods in urbanizing regions of Thailand is significantly constrained by institutional traps. Comparisons of the impacts and governance responses to major flood events in Chiang Mai, Ayutthaya and Bangkok in 2005–06 and 2011 suggests that there has been very little policy learning. Institutional traps remain as important now as they were more than a decade ago. Dominant policy narratives help maintain institutional traps by promoting solutions that reduce organizational risks, like the transfer of responsibilities to local communities, or reflect organizational interests and professional norms. Policy narratives will need to be challenged or transformed if progress in building urban resilience to floods is to be made.

Chapter 17 Water insecurities and climate change adaptation in Thailand

In Thailand, as in many other developing countries, a significant and coherent policy response to the challenges posed by climate change is just beginning to emerge. The initial emphasis was on meeting international reporting obligations and building a better understanding of the issues (OEPP, 2000). Most climate policy attention has focused on mitigation, in particular of the difficulties, and occasionally taking advantage of the opportunities, in decoupling growth in greenhouse gas emissions from social and economic development. While early concerns were expressed about impacts on water resources and agriculture, not much attention has been given to implementing specific adaptation measures.

Governance of aquaculture water use

Abstract Successful aquaculture depends on access to sufficient water of adequate quality, and should not significantly degrade water quality or damage ecosystems in receiving waters. While water management technologies have received a lot of attention as potential solutions, many of the outstanding challenges are collective-action problems that depend on improving aquaculture governance. In high-income countries, aquaculture is often subject to multiple regulations that constrain the development of the sector, whereas in most low- and middle-income countries, regulations are fewer, less demanding or not implemented. Many of the promising and innovative governance initiatives involve a combination of rules, information and incentives, as well as negotiation among multiple stakeholders.

Making space for women: civil society organizations, gender and hydropower development in the Mekong region

Abstract Large-scale hydropower development disrupts local livelihoods and resource access. Adverse impacts are often greater for women than men, but also large for children, the elderly, poorer households and ethnic minorities. Burdens of resettlement often fall disproportionately on already disadvantaged individuals. The purpose of this study was to evaluate how international, national and local civil society organizations (CSOs) have addressed gender in hydropower development in the Mekong Region. Four CSO orientations are distinguished: communitarian, environmentalist, knowledge-based and feminist. Common activities of CSOs were to share information, to expand participation and to mobilize development. The extent to which these activities were promoted and appear to be making space for women depended on the types of CSOs and women and men targeted or otherwise involved.