Pirkko Pitkänen

The Emergence of Estonian–Finnish Transnational Space

This chapter focuses on the characteristics and dynamics of the emergent transnational space of Estonia–Finland. The chapter gives an insight on transnationalism in settings that are unique in many respects: Both countries are European and EU member states, geographically, culturally, and linguistically proximate and post-industrialized societies. However, Estonia is a post-communist country that has faced very rapid political and economic transitions toward a neoliberal state, whereas Finland can be described as a relatively stable Nordic welfare state. Based on interviews with both Estonian as well as Finnish transmigrants, the analysis reflects the perspective of migrants from both sides of the Finnish Gulf, outlining similarities as well as differences, and also analyzing factors that might have caused these differences. The chapter gives an overview of the history of the Estonian–Finnish transnational space, evolving migratory patterns and networks in a relatively new migratory space, and focuses more specifically on political, sociocultural, economic, and educational transformations.

Education and Immigration: Settlement Policies and Current Challenges

Introduction 1. Immigration Policies and the Education of Immigrants in Britain 2. Immigrant Policies and the Education of Immigrants in Finland 3. Immigration Policies and Education in France 4. German Policy on Foreigners and the Education of Immigrants in the Federal Republic of Germany 5. Settlement Policy in Greece and the Education of Immigrants 6. Multi-cultural Education in Israel as a Fulfillment of the National Ethos and Political Policy

Using transnational lenses to analyse interconnections between migration, education and development

The article focuses on the development implications of the transformation processes underway in primary and professional education due to the increase in transnational migration. The initial assumption is that many questions related to the development are inextricably linked to people’s transnational mobility. Transnational lenses are used to scrutinise the transformative character of the emergent educational spaces. The term ‘transnational educational space’ is used to describe the ways in which individual and collective educational agencies make use of space in transnational settings, focusing in particular upon questions of empowerment and the related needs for skill acquisition. The findings suggest that instead of narrow nation-bound approaches, both basic and professional education should be understood in the context of the global integration of economies, politics and social relations. A transnational perspective serves to confirm that people and their education and skills are the key to development in both ends of the migration axis. Global expert networks, in particular, play a crucial role when considering the transformation processes underway.

Current Characteristics of Migrant Transnationalism

Reflecting on the research findings, it can be said that the current nature of migrant transnationalism is the result of an interplay of various historical, political, economic, and cultural factors. For instance, the characteristics of migration between India and the UK are extensively related to the colonial history of the countries. Similarly, the most important reasons for the intensive movement of people between Morocco and France lie in the past French colonial presence in Morocco and in the long history of emigration to France. The Turkish–German case represents an established transnational connection in which economic migration has a vital role to play. Although the initial assumption was that Turkish “guest workers” would stay in Germany for only a limited period of time and then return to Turkey, this was not the case; many of them settled in Germany. Finally, the Estonian–Finnish space represents an emerging transnational space in which human movement was prevented by political factors for a long time. Although the Estonian–Finnish space is a fairly recent migratory passage, it has undergone remarkable transformation processes during the past few decades.

Navigating Bureaucracies, Intentions and Relationships: Temporary Transnational Migration Between Finland and Asia

The chapter shows that Finland attracts increasing numbers of temporary migrants from Asia who come to study or work in the country. At the same time, it is increasingly popular for Finns to work, study or travel in Asia. The chapter elaborates on various aspects of temporary migrants’ lives and experiences in Finland, including their motivations to migrate and the significance of money and careers. It becomes evident that money is not the only motivation for temporary migration and policies should not treat migrants as mere labour force. The authors argue that there is a contradiction between Finland wanting to attract skilled labour migrants and the slow and complicated bureaucracies that make foreigners feel they are not welcome. Similarly to in-coming migrants, many Finnish lifestyle migrants and returnees struggle with Finnish bureaucracies and rules relating to permanent residence when their lifestyle entails spending long periods abroad. The chapter also discusses the temporary migrants’ social relationships and argues that their integration into local society is hindered by their lack of language skills. Migrants’ future plans are characterised by various insecurities. Eventually, the authors argue that temporary migration is only a momentary solution for individual people because they tend to become tired of temporariness.

Introduction: Temporary Migration in European-Asian Social Spaces

One of the key tendencies in the contemporary world is the increase in the volumes of people’s mobility back and forth between nation-states for various reasons as well as the rise of people’s engagement in cross-border social ties. People ‘migrate, oscillate, circulate or tour’ (O’Reilly 2007: 281) between their home and host countries, which means that they may leave one country, move to a second and then either settle there or return to their native country, or move on to a third.

Conclusion: Characteristics, Experiences and Transnationality of Temporary Migration

Besides uncovering how politics structure the transnational movement issues in sending, transit and receiving societies, the previous chapters sought to make the transnational practices and lived experiences of individual temporary migrants visible. Since the 1990s scholars have explored the dynamics of transnational migration with an emphasis on the emergence of transnational spaces that transcend geographic, political, social and cultural borders (e.g. Faist 2000; Portes et al. 1999). What this literature has not done sufficiently is to explain the implications of the temporariness of migration with respect to these dynamics. The EURA-NET research sought to shed light on the everyday experiences of temporary migrants in the European-Asian transnational social spaces. Answers were sought to the following questions: (1) Why do people migrate on a temporary basis and not permanently? (2) What are the daily experiences of various types of temporary migrants? (3) How does temporariness affect their migration experiences? (4) How does temporary migrants’ transnationalism appear in the European-Asian transnational social spaces?