Pnina S. Klein

Toddlers' self-regulated compliance to mothers, caregivers, and fathers: Implications for theories of socialization.

To compare childrens socialized behavior to parents and nonparental agents, this study examined self-regulated compliance to mothers and caregivers--an early form of internalization--in 90 toddlers, half of whom were also observed with fathers. Adults were observed in play, teaching, and discipline sessions with the child and were interviewed on child-rearing philosophies. Child cognition and emotion regulation were assessed, and naturalistic observations were conducted at child-care locations. Mean-level and rank-order stability were found in child compliance to the 3 adults. Child emotion regulation and adult warm control in a discipline situation were related to self-regulated compliance to the mother, caregiver, and father. Compliance to parents correlated with parental sensitivity and philosophies, and compliance to the caregiver correlated with child cognition and social involvement when child-care quality was controlled. Maternal sensitivity and warm control discipline predicted compliance to the caregiver but not vice versa. Results are consistent with theoretical positions on the generalization of socialization from the mother to nonmaternal agents.

Stability and change in interaction of Israeli mothers and infants

The current study describes the developmental trends of specific nurturant behaviors, defined as mediated learning experience (MLE), of mothers towards their infants over a period of 18 months and compares them across different caregiving situations. Observations of molar sequences of meaningful behaviors, preselected on the basis of Feuersteins theory of MLE (1979a) . were conducted in unstructured home environments of 40 middle-class Israeli infants when they were 6, 12, and 24 months of age. Each observation consisted of mother-infant interactions during a feeding, a bathing, and a play situation. The MLEs were generally found to increase with age between 6 and 24 months, regardless of the different caregiving situations studied. Exceptions were noted at age 24 months, when significantly more MLEs were observed at play than in the other caregiving situations, and at 12 months, when mediated feelings of competence during feeding were found to be more frequent than at 6 or 24 months. Mothers were also highly consistent in the amount of MLE they provided at each age level and for the various situations. Finally, differences in styles of mediation were observed between mothers identified as either high or low mediators. The results demonstrate the advantages of a molar, rather than molecular, approach to monitoring parent-infant interactions that are critical to the childs healthy psychosocial development.

The assessment of analogical thinking modifiability among regular, special education, disadvantaged, and mentally retarded children

The objectives of the current study were (a) to develop a measure of childrens analogical thinking modifiability (CATM) based on the Feuerstein, Rand, and Hoffman (1979) theory of dynamic assessment of cognitive modifiability, (b) to compare the performance of groups assumed to be differentially modified by intervention, (c) to compare CATM performance with performance on a conventional test, and (d) to study qualitative changes after a learning process. Subjects were disdvantaged, regular, and special education kindergarten children (N=140), and mentally retarded children (N=20). The CATM was administered together with the Ravens Colored Progressive Matrices (RCPM) in a balanced order. Disadvantaged and regular children achieved higher gain scores than other groups in both none-or-all and partial credit methods (p < 01). The MR and the special education groups showed small gains according to the none-or-all credit method; however, according to the partial credit method, the MR group showed high gains and the special education group a performance decrease. Performance scores on the CATM were higher than on the RCPM, especially in comparison to the B8-B12 items-differences reach a peak of 61% and 67% for the disadvantaged and regular groups, respectively. Qualitative analysis indicated that form mistakes were most resistant to change, whereas color mistakes were most easy to modify. Results were explained within Feuersteins theoretical framework of cognitive modifiability. Impaired cognitive functions as well as analytic versus synthetic processes were suggested to explain group differences.

A year-long caregiver training program improves cognition in preschool Ugandan children with human immunodeficiency virus.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate mediational intervention for sensitizing caregivers (MISC). MISC biweekly caregiver training significantly enhanced child development compared with biweekly training on health and nutrition (active control) and to evaluate whether MISC training improved the emotional well-being of the caregivers compared with controls. STUDY DESIGN Sixty of 120 rural Ugandan preschool child/caregiver dyads with HIV were assigned by randomized clusters to biweekly MISC training, alternating between home and clinic for 1 year. Control dyads received a health and nutrition curriculum. Children were evaluated at baseline, 6 months, and 1 year with the Mullen Early Learning Scales and the Color-Object Association Test for memory. Caldwell Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment and videotaped child/caregiver MISC interactions also were evaluated. Caregivers were evaluated for depression and anxiety with the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist. RESULTS Between-group repeated-measures ANCOVA comparisons were made with age, sex, CD4 levels, viral load, material socioeconomic status, physical development, and highly active anti-retroviral therapy treatment status as covariates. The children given MISC had significantly greater gains compared with controls on the Mullen Visual Reception scale (visual-spatial memory) and on Color-Object Association Test memory. MISC caregivers significantly improved on Caldwell Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment scale and total frequency of MISC videotaped interactions. MISC caregivers also were less depressed. Mortality was less for children given MISC compared with controls during the training year. CONCLUSIONS MISC was effective in teaching Ugandan caregivers to enhance their childrens cognitive development through practical and sustainable techniques applied during daily interactions in the home.

A Year-Long Caregiver Training Program to Improve Neurocognition in Preschool Ugandan HIV-Exposed Children

Objective: Mediational intervention for sensitizing caregivers (MISC) is a structured program enabling caregivers to enhance their child’s cognitive and emotional development through daily interactions. The principal aim was to evaluate if a year-long MISC caregiver training program produced greater improvement in child cognitive and emotional development compared with a control program. Methods: One hundred and nineteen uninfected HIV-exposed preschool children and their caregivers were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatment arms: biweekly MISC training alternating between home and clinic for 1 year or a health and nutrition curriculum. All children were evaluated at baseline, 6 months, and 1 year with the Mullen Early Learning Scales, Color-Object Association Test for memory, and Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist for psychiatric symptoms. Caregivers were evaluated on the same schedule with the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-25 for depression and anxiety. Results: The treatment arms were compared using repeated-measures analysis of covariance with child age, gender, weight, socioeconomic status, caregiving quality, caregiver anxiety, and caregiver education as covariates. The MISC children had significantly greater gains compared to controls on the Mullen Receptive and Expressive Language development, and on the Mullen composite score of cognitive ability. Color-Object Association Test total memory for MISC children was marginally better than controls. No Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist differences between the groups were noted. Caldwell Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment scores and observed mediational interaction scores from videotapes measuring caregiving quality also improved significantly more for the MISC group. Conclusions: The MISC enhanced cognitive performance, especially in language development. These benefits were possibly mediated by improved caregiving and positive emotional benefit to the caregiver.

Mothers’ and caregivers’ interactive and teaching behavior with toddlers

Interactive behavior of 90 Israeli toddlers was observed with mothers and caregivers in one‐on‐one free play interactions. Children were examined with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, and adults completed self‐report measures. Observations were coded for both the quality of adult–child interactive behavior and for the quality of adults’ teaching behavior. Toddlers’ one‐on‐one interactions with their caregivers and mothers did not differ in sensitivity, intrusiveness, limit‐setting and positive involvement and on measures of teaching behavior, with the exception of affecting, which was higher in caregiver–child interactions. Interactions with caregivers included more focusing and negative teaching behaviors (i.e. mismatches and commands). Whereas mothers’ more sensitive, responsive, less intrusive interactions were related to children’s Bayley scores, caregivers’ higher rates of intrusiveness were associated with lower Bayley scores. Younger toddlers with lower psychomotor scores, who were perceived by caregivers as fussy and unpredictable, received more intrusive and less sensitive care with less teaching behavior in interactions with caregivers. Different combinations of child and adult variables predicted interactive and teaching behaviors of mothers and caregivers.

Cognitive Mediation and Emotional Support of Fathers and Mothers to Their Children During Shared Book-Reading in Two Different SES Groups

This study was designed to investigate the cognitive and emotional nature of the book-reading mediation of fathers and mothers to their preschool children. Thirty-nine families (each including a mother, a father, and their kindergarten child) participated in this study: 19 of low SES (LSES) and 20 of middle SES (MSES). The mothers’ and fathers’ interactions while reading an unfamiliar book were videotaped and their verbal expressions were coded for extracting the parental mediation level. The results demonstrated that mothers encouraged their children and discussed topics not related to the story more than fathers. Fathers used higher cognitive levels of mediation than mothers mainly by discussing issues that are beyond the text, whereas mothers also used paraphrasing mediation. Similarly, MSES parents presented a higher level of cognitive mediation than LSES parents, mediating issues beyond the text, whereas LSES parents also used paraphrasing. The mothers and fathers presented different emotional support to their children. A significant correlation was found between cognitive and emotional support (r = .41) among fathers across SES groups. The results are discussed in terms of the families’ SES background and parental gender. Implications for researchers and educational practices are discussed.

Book reading mediation, SES, home literacy environment, and children's literacy: Evidence from Arabic-speaking families

This article investigates the contribution of maternal mediation in storybook reading, socioeconomic status (SES), and home literacy environment (HLE) to children’s literacy level in kindergarten and first grade in Israeli Arabic-speaking families. A total of 109 kindergarten children and their mothers participated. Children’s literacy level was assessed in kindergarten. Mothers and children were videotaped at home in a book reading activity, and HLE data were gathered from the mothers. One year later, the children’s literacy level was assessed in first grade. Results show that mothers often used paraphrasing in the reading activities and dealt less with the written language. Correlations were found between SES and children’s literacy measures in oral and written language in kindergarten and in first grade. Significant positive relationships were found between HLE and children’s literacy level in kindergarten and first grade. No relationship was found between maternal mediation and children’s spoken and written language skills in either age group. Regression analysis showed that HLE was the best contributor variable to children’s literacy level, followed by family SES level, with no contribution of maternal mediation. Implications of the relationships between children’s literacy development, SES, HLE, and parental mediation in Arabic-speaking families for researchers and educational practitioners are discussed.

Learning Skills and Types of Temperaments as Discriminants between Intrinsically and Extrinsically Motivated Children

Intrinsic motivation as a personality orientation and its relationship to learning skills, types of temperament, and curiosity ratings was investigated at kindergarten age. 236 kindergarten children were given the Picture Motivation Scale and the Adelphi Parent Administered Readiness Test. The teachers rated the children on Thomas, Chess, and Birchs types of temperament and on 9 categories of curiosity and creativity from the California Child Q set. A discriminant function analysis indicated significant discrimination between intrinsically and extrinsically motivated children on sex, writing ability, visual perception, vividness-energy, persistence, and attention span. A differential cognitive functions explanation is offered.

Behaviour patterns in daily mother–child separations: possible opportunities for stress reduction

Despite the abundance of research on attachment and on the effects of separation, very little research examines the actual processes of separation occurring daily when mothers leave their children (age 6–18 months) in out‐of‐home group care. In the current study, this everyday process of separation was observed for three months (September–November), starting with the first day in daycare. Typical patterns of mother–child, mother–child–caregiver, mother–caregiver and child–caregiver interactions were identified, each including behaviours that could either relieve or aggravate stress. Separation processes initiated by the mother that included repeated patterns of ceremony and ritual were identified as reducing stress. In addition, infants and toddlers who cried more following separation received more attention distracting responses, whereas those who cried less received more empathic responses. More crying was observed when mothers remained to talk to the caregiver after separation.