Prabhash K. Pandey

Serine protease inhibitors in plants: nature’s arsenal crafted for insect predators

Plant serine protease inhibitors are defense proteins crafted by nature for inhibiting serine proteases. Use of eco-friendly, sustainable and effective protein molecules which could halt or slow down metabolism of nutrients in pest would be a pragmatic approach in insect pest management of crops. The host-pest complexes that we observe in nature are evolutionary dynamic and inter-depend on other defense mechanisms and interactions of other pests or more generally speaking symbionts with the same host. Insects have co-evolved and adapted simultaneously, which makes it necessary to investigate serine protease inhibitors in non-host plants. Such novel serine protease inhibitors are versatile candidates with vast potential to overcome the host inhibitor-insensitive proteases. In a nutshell exploring and crafting plant serine proteinase inhibitors (PIs) for controlling pests effectively must go on. Non-host PI seems to be a better choice for coevolved insensitive proteases. Transgenic plants expressing wound inducible chimaeric PIs may be an outstanding approach to check wide spectrum of gut proteinases and overcome the phenomenon of resistance development. Thus, this article focuses on an entire array of plant serine protease inhibitors that have been explored in the past decade, their mode of action and biological implications as well as applications.

KINETIC ASSESSMENT AND EFFECT ON DEVELOPMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY OF A TRYPSIN INHIBITOR FROM Eugenia jambolana (JAMBUL) SEEDS ON Helicoverpa armigera (HÜBNER)

A trypsin inhibitor was purified from the seeds of Eugenia jambolana (Jambul) with a fold purification of 14.28 and a yield recovery of 2.8%. Electrophoretic analysis of E. jambolana trypsin inhibitor (EjTI) revealed a molecular weight of approximately 17.4 kDa on 12% denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with or without reduction. EjTI exhibited high stability over a wide range of temperatures (4-80 °C for 30 min) and pH (3.0-10.0) and inhibited trypsin-like activities of the midgut proteinases of fourth instar Helicoverpa armigera larvae by approximately 86%. Feeding assays containing 0.05, 0.15, and 0.45 (% w/w) EjTI on functionally important fourth-instar larvae indicated a dose-dependent downfall in the larval body weight as well as on extent of survival. The nutritional analysis suggests that EjTI exerts toxic effects on H. armigera. Dixon plot analysis revealed competitive inhibition of larval midgut proteinases by EjTI, with an inhibition constant (Ki ) of approximately 3.1 × 10(-9) M. However, inhibitor kinetics using double reciprocal plots for trypsin inhibition demonstrated a mixed inhibition pattern. These observations suggest the potential of E. jambolana trypsin inhibitor protein in insect pest management.

Bio-potency of a 21 kDa Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor from Tamarindus indica seeds on the developmental physiology of H. armigera

A trypsin inhibitor purified from the seeds of Tamarindus indica by Sephadex G-75, DEAE-Sepharose and Trypsin-Sepharose CL-4B columns was studied for its antifeedant, larvicidal, pupicidal and growth inhibitory activities against Helicoverpa armigera larvae. Tamarindus trypsin inhibitor (TTI) exhibited inhibitory activity towards total gut proteolytic enzymes of H. armigera (~87%) and bovine trypsin (~84%). Lethal doses which caused mortality and weight reduction by 50% were 1% w/w and 0.50% w/w, respectively. IC50 of TTI against Helicoverpa midgut proteases and bovine trypsin were ~2.10 µg/ml and 1.68 µg/ml respectively. In larval feeding studies the 21 kDa Kunitz-type protein was found to retard growth and development, prolonged the larval-pupal development durations along with adversely affecting the fertility and fecundity of H. armigera. In artificial diet at 0.5% w/w TTI, the efficiency of conversion of ingested food as well as of digested food, relative growth rate, growth index declined whereas approximate digestibility, metabolic cost, relative consumption rate, consumption index and total developmental period enhanced for H. armigera larvae. These results suggest that TTI has toxic and adverse effect on the developmental physiology of H. armigera and could be useful in controlling the pest H. armigera.

A Nonhost Peptidase Inhibitor of ~14 kDa from Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Seeds Affects Negatively the Growth and Developmental Physiology of Helicoverpa armigera

Helicoverpa armigera is one of the major devastating pests of crop plants. In this context a serine peptidase inhibitor purified from the seeds of Butea monosperma was evaluated for its effect on developmental physiology of H. armigera larvae. B. monosperma peptidase inhibitor on 12% denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis exhibited a single protein band of ~14 kDa with or without reduction. In vitro studies towards total gut proteolytic enzymes of H. armigera and bovine trypsin indicated measurable inhibitory activity. B. monosperma peptidase inhibitor dose for 50% mortality and weight reduction by 50% were 0.5% w/w and 0.10% w/w, respectively. The IC50 of B. monosperma peptidase inhibitor against total H. armigera gut proteinases activity was 2.0 µg/mL. The larval feeding assays suggested B. monosperma peptidase inhibitor to be toxic as reflected by its retarded growth and development, consequently affecting fertility and fecundity of pest and prolonging the larval-pupal duration of the insect life cycle of H. armigera. Supplementing B. monosperma peptidase inhibitor in artificial diet at 0.1% w/w, both the efficiencies of conversion of ingested as well as digested food were downregulated, whereas approximate digestibility and metabolic cost were enhanced. The efficacy of Butea monosperma peptidase inhibitor against progressive growth and development of H. armigera suggest its usefulness in insect pest management of food crops.

Negative Effects of a Nonhost Proteinase Inhibitor of ~19.8 kDa from Madhuca indica Seeds on Developmental Physiology of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner)

An affinity purified trypsin inhibitor from the seed flour extracts of Madhuca indica (MiTI) on denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that MiTI consisted of a single polypeptide chain with molecular mass of ~19.8 kDa. MiTI inhibited the total proteolytic and trypsin-like activities of the midgut proteinases of Helicoverpa armigera larvae by 87.51% and 76.12%, respectively, at concentration of 5 µg/mL with an IC50 of 1.75 µg/mL against trypsin like midgut proteinases. The enzyme kinetic studies demonstrated that MiTI is a competitive inhibitor with a K i value of 4.1 × 10−10 M for Helicoverpa trypsin like midgut proteinases. In vivo experiments with different concentrations of MiTI in artificial diet (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5% w/w) showed an effective downfall in the larval body weight and an increase in larval mortality. The concentration of MiTI in the artificial diet to cause 50% mortality (LD50) of larvae was 1.5% w/w and that to cause reduction in mass of larvae by 50% (ED50) was 1.0% w/w. Nutritional indices observations suggest the toxic and adverse effects of MiTI on the growth and development of H. armigera larvae. The results suggest a strong bioinsecticidal potential of affinity purified MiTI which can be exploited in insect pest management of crop plants.

The influence of a 21 kDa Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor from nonhost madras thorn, Pithecellobium dulce, seeds on H. armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

A trypsin inhibitor purified from the seeds of the Manila tamarind, Pithecellobium dulce (PDTI), was studied for its effects on growth parameters and developmental stages of Helicoverpa armigera. PDTI exhibited inhibitory activity against bovine trypsin (∼86%; ∼1.33 ug/ml IC50). The inhibitory activity of PDTI was unaltered over a wide range of temperature, pH, and in the presence of dithiothreitol. Larval midgut proteases were unable to digest PDTI for up to 12 h of incubation. Dixon and Lineweaver-Burk double reciprocal plots analysis revealed a competitive inhibition mechanism and a Ki of ∼3.9 × 10(-8) M. Lethal dose (0.50% w/w) and dosage for weight reduction by 50% (0.25% w/w) were determined. PDTI showed a dose-dependent effect on mean larval weight and a series of nutritional disturbances. In artificial diet at 0.25% w/w PDTI, the efficiency of conversion of ingested food, of digested food, relative growth rate, and growth index declined, whereas approximate digestibility, relative consumption rate, metabolic cost, consumption index, and total developmental period were increased in larvae. This is the first report of antifeedant and antimetabolic activities of PDTI on midgut proteases of H. armigera.