Priyabrata Pattnaik

Surface plasmon resonance: applications in understanding receptor-ligand interaction.

During last decade there has been significant progress in the development of analytical techniques for evaluation of receptor-ligand iteraction. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based optical biosensors are now being used extensively to defined the kinetics of wide variety of macromolecular interactions and high- and low-affinity small molecule interactions. The experimental design data analysis methods are evolving along with widespread applications in ligand fishing, microbiology, virology, host-pathogen interaction, epitope mapping and protein-, cell-, membrane-, nucleic acid-protein interactions. SPR based biosensors have strong impact on basic and applied research significantly. This brief review describes the SPR technology and few of its applications in relation to receptor-ligand interaction that has brought significant change in the methodology, analysis, interpretation, and application of the SPR technology.

Bacterially expressed and refolded receptor binding domain of Plasmodium falciparum EBA-175 elicits invasion inhibitory antibodies

Malaria parasites make specific receptor-ligand interactions to invade erythrocytes. A 175 kDa Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte binding antigen (EBA-175) binds sialic acid residues on glycophorin A during invasion of human erythrocytes. The receptor-binding domain of EBA-175 lies in a conserved, amino-terminal, cysteine-rich region, region F2 of EBA-175 (PfF2), that is homologous to the binding domains of other erythrocyte binding proteins such as Plasmodium vivax Duffy binding protein. We have developed methods to produce recombinant PfF2 in its functional form. Recombinant PfF2 was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified from inclusion bodies, renatured by oxidative refolding and purified to homogeneity by ion-exchange and gel filtration chromatography. Refolded PfF2 has been characterized using biochemical and biophysical methods and shown to be pure, homogenous and functional in that it binds human erythrocytes with specificity. Immunization with refolded PfF2 yields high titre antibodies that efficiently inhibit P. falciparum invasion of erythrocytes in vitro. Importantly, antibodies raised against PfF2 block invasion by a P. falciparum field isolate that invades erythrocytes using multiple pathways. These observations support the development of recombinant PfF2 as a vaccine candidate for P. falciparum malaria.

Mapping binding residues in the Plasmodium vivax domain that binds Duffy antigen during red cell invasion

Plasmodium vivax depends on interaction with the Duffy antigen/receptor for chemokines (DARC) for invasion of human erythrocytes. The 140 kDa P. vivax Duffy‐binding protein (PvDBP) mediates interaction with DARC. The receptor‐binding domain of PvDBP maps to its N‐terminal, cysteine‐rich region, region II (PvRII), which contains approximately 300 amino acid residues including 12 conserved cysteines. Using surface plasmon resonance, we show that binding of PvRII to DARC is a high‐affinity interaction with a binding constant (KD) of 8.7 nM. The minimal binding domain of PvRII has been previously mapped to a central 170‐amino‐acid stretch that includes cysteines 5–8. Here, we have used site‐directed mutagenesis and quantitative binding assays to map amino acid residues within PvRII that make contact with DARC. Of the seven alanine replacement mutations that had an effect on binding, five were mutations in hydrophobic residues suggesting that hydrophobic interactions play a major role in the interaction of PvDBP with DARC. Genetic diversity studies have shown that six of the seven binding residues identified in PvRII are conserved in P. vivax field isolates, which provides support for their role in interaction with DARC.

Immunogenicity of a recombinant envelope domain III protein of dengue virus type-4 with various adjuvants in mice.

Dengue fever, a mosquito borne viral disease, has become a major public health problem with dramatic expansion in recent decades. Several dengue vaccines are at developing stage, none are yet available for humans. There is no vaccine or antiviral therapy available for dengue fever till date. Domain III of envelope protein is involved in binding to host receptors and it contains type and subtype-specific epitopes that elicit virus neutralizing antibodies. Hence domain III is an attractive vaccine candidate. In the present study we report the immunomodulatory potential of refolded D4EIII protein in combination with various adjuvants (Freunds Complete adjuvant, Montanide ISA720, Alum). Mice were tested for humoral immune responses by ELISA, immunofluorescence assay and plaque reduction neutralization test. Cell mediated immune response was tested by lymphocyte proliferation assay and cytokine profiling. All the formulations resulted in high antibody titers that neutralized the virus entry in vitro. D4EIII in combination with montanide ISA720 and Feuds complete adjuvant gave highest antibody endpoint titers followed by alum. The level of antigen-stimulated splenocyte proliferation and cytokine production was comparable to that obtained from Con A stimulation and cytokine profiling of stimulated splenocyte culture supernatants indicated that all the adjuvant formulations have induced cell mediated immune response as well. These findings suggest that D4EIII in combination with compatible adjuvants is highly immunogenic and can elicit high titer neutralizing antibodies and cell mediated immune response which plays an important role in intracellular infections, which proves that refolded D4EIII can be a potential vaccine candidate.

Structural and functional dissection of the adhesive domains of Plasmodium falciparum thrombospondin-related anonymous protein (TRAP).

TRAP (thrombospondin-related anonymous protein) is a sporozoite surface protein that plays a central role in hepatocyte invasion. We have developed procedures for recombinant production of the entire ECD (extracellular domain) and A domain of TRAP using bacterial- and baculovirus-expression systems respectively. The ECD and A domain were purified to homogeneity and migrated on gel-filtration columns as non-aggregated, monomeric proteins. These adhesive modules bound to HepG2 cells in a dose-dependent and bivalent cation-independent manner. The binding of ECD and the A domain to HepG2 cells was inhibited poorly by an excess of sulphatide analogues, suggesting the presence of as yet unidentified receptors for the A domain on hepatocytes. Using surface-plasmon-resonance-based sensor technology (Biacore), we demonstrate that TRAP ECD has higher affinity for heparin (K(D)=40 nM) compared with the A domain (K(D)=79 nM). We also present a three-dimensional structure of the A domain based on the crystal structure of the homologous von Willebrand factor A1 domain. The TRAP A domain shows two spatially distinct ligand-binding surfaces. One surface on the A domain contains the MIDAS (metal-ion-dependent adhesion site) motif, where point mutations of Thr131 and Asp162 correlate with impairment of cell infectivity by sporozoites. The other surface contains a putative heparin-binding site and consists of a basic residue cluster. Our studies suggest that TRAP interacts with multiple receptors during the hepatocyte invasion process. Our results also pave the way for inclusion of these high-quality recombinant TRAP domains in subunit-based vaccines against malaria.

Improvement in Yield and Purity of a Recombinant Malaria Vaccine Candidate Based on the Receptor-Binding Domain of Plasmodium vivax Duffy Binding Protein by Codon Optimization

A recombinant blood-stage vaccine for Plasmodium vivax malaria based on the functional receptor-binding domain of PvDBP (PvRII) has been developed. A synthetic gene coding for PvRII was expressed in Escherichia coli using codon optimization. Expression level of recombinant PvRII was 10% of the total cellular proteins. Truncated PvRII products, seen when the native PvRII gene was expressed, were absent in case of synthetic gene.

Chromatographic purification of equine immunoglobulin G F(ab)2 from plasma

The antibody fragments generated from hyperimmune equine IgG is widely used as anti-snake venom, anti-scorpion venom, anti-diphtheria, anti-tetanus, anti-gangrene and anti-rabies agents. Antibody fragments, F(ab)(2), because of their specificity and absence of undesired reactivity are preferred over complete IgG. This paper discusses a novel purification technique for chromatographic purification of anti-rabies immunoglobulin G (IgG) fragment F(ab)(2) from horse serum. F(ab)(2) was purified by two successive chromatography steps using Cellufine A-200 and ProSep-vA Ultra media. The purified F(ab)(2) was characterized using biochemical and biophysical methods and shown to be pure and homogeneous. The purified F(ab)(2) was reactive to rabies antigen in immuno-electrophoresis and diffusion tests. The purified F(ab)(2) was biologically functional and was found to show a potency of 1500 IU ml(-1). Comparative analysis of the purity with commercially available F(ab)(2) by HPLC analysis and SDS-PAGE indicated that the present product is better in purity. To our knowledge, this is the first report providing evidence on purification of equine antibody fragment using controlled pore glass based protein A chromatography media.

Antibodies Against Refolded Recombinant Envelope Protein (Domain III) of Japanese Encephalitis Virus Inhibit the JEV Infection to Porcine Stable Kidney Cells

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne viral zoonosis of public health importance. Global efforts have been made towards development of vaccine for prevention of Japanese encephalitis. The envelope protein of JEV is associated with viral binding to cellular receptors, membrane fusion, and the induction of protective neutralizing antibody response in hosts. Here we report that the antibodies raised against refolded domain III of envelope protein of JEV neutralize the JE virus and inhibit the JEV infection to Porcine Stable Kidney (PS) cells. A reverse transcriptase-PCR amplified gene encoding domain III of JEV envelope protein was cloned into pET28a+ vector and over expressed in E. coli. The recombinant JEV-DIII protein was purified by affinity chromatography under denaturing conditions. The rJEV-DIII was refolded by oxido-redux shuffle and purified to homogeneity by ion-exchange chromatography. Refolded rJEV-DIII was characterized using biochemical and biophysical methods. The polyclonal antibodies were raised against in vitro refolded rJEV-DIII protein in BALB/c mice with Freunds adjuvant. Ninety percent JEV is neutralized when the serum against refolded rJEV-DIII is used at a dilution of 1:80 as against 60.5% neutralization capacity with the same dilution of serum raised against denatured rJEV-DIII. The method of expression and purification of biologically functional rJEV-DIII protein described in this study may help in better understanding the biology of JE virus and the development of better vaccine candidate. Since the expression system uses E. coli as the heterologous host, the process is easy and amenable to inexpensive scale-up.

Production, purification and characterization of recombinant dengue multiepitope protein

Dengue is an acute mosquito‐borne viral disease of humankind. Dengue fever, dengue haemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome have become global public health problems in recent years. rDME‐G (recombinant dengue multiepitope protein that can specifically detect IgG) was produced in a 5‐litre fermenter in Escherichia coli for use in diagnosis. The culture was induced with 1 mM isopropyl β‐d‐thiogalactoside and cells were further grown for 4 h before harvesting. After fermentation, dry cell weight resulted in approx. 16.2 g/l. The rDME‐G protein was purified from inclusion bodies using affinity chromatography. The final yield of purified rDME‐G protein from fermentation resulted in approx. 168 mg/l of pure biologically active rDME‐G protein. The purity of rDME‐G protein was checked by SDS/PAGE analysis and the reactivity of this protein was further determined by Western blotting. The purified protein was used to develop an in‐house dipstick ELISA and tested using a panel of 60 patient sera characterized using the commercially available tests for detection of dengue antibody. We compared our results with IgG‐capture ELISA (Pan‐Bio, Windsor, QLD, Australia) and rapid IC (immuno‐chromatography) test (Pan‐Bio). By using rDME‐G protein as an antigen, in the dipstick ELISA, the results were in excellent agreement with commercial rapid IC test and IgG capture ELISA. These results show that the product has a promising potential to be used for diagnosis of dengue in both laboratory‐ and field‐based detection systems with minimum cost and a high degree of sensitivity and specificity.

Microbial Forensics: Applications in Bioterrorism

Abstract Microbial forensics is a new discipline combining microbiology and forensic science. Unlike public health investigations, microbial forensics goes further to associate the source of the causative agent with a specific individual or group. Microbial forensics measures molecular variations between related microbial strains and their use to infer the origin, relationship, or transmission route of a particular microbial strain. Several advanced molecular techniques and practices including molecular phylogeny, whole genome sequencing, microarray analysis, and DNA fingerprinting offer reliable results for interpretation in a microbial forensic investigation. Results from such analyses may be related to the intentional use of microbial agents for bioterrorism or the accidental release of any offensive microorganisms or toxins of public health importance specifically for the purpose of determining the origin. Thus, the new discipline of microbial forensics is an integration of an array of well-established fields, such as microbial genomics, phylogenetics, forensic informatics, and classical microbiology. In this article, we review the concept, technology base, success stories, and challenges of microbial forensics and its application in bioterrorism-related investigations.