Procheta C. V. Mallik

Deducing Electron Properties from Hard X-Ray Observations

X-radiation from energetic electrons is the prime diagnostic of flare-accelerated electrons. The observed X-ray flux (and polarization state) is fundamentally a convolution of the cross-section for the hard X-ray emission process(es) in question with the electron distribution function, which is in turn a function of energy, direction, spatial location and time. To address the problems of particle propagation and acceleration one needs to infer as much information as possible on this electron distribution function, through a deconvolution of this fundamental relationship. This review presents recent progress toward this goal using spectroscopic, imaging and polarization measurements, primarily from the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI). Previous conclusions regarding the energy, angular (pitch angle) and spatial distributions of energetic electrons in solar flares are critically reviewed. We discuss the role and the observational evidence of several radiation processes: free-free electron-ion, free-free electron-electron, free-bound electron-ion, photoelectric absorption and Compton backscatter (albedo), using both spectroscopic and imaging techniques. This unprecedented quality of data allows for the first time inference of the angular distributions of the X-ray-emitting electrons and improved model-independent inference of electron energy spectra and emission measures of thermal plasma. Moreover, imaging spectroscopy has revealed hitherto unknown details of solar flare morphology and detailed spectroscopy of coronal, footpoint and extended sources in flaring regions. Additional attempts to measure hard X-ray polarization were not sufficient to put constraints on the degree of anisotropy of electrons, but point to the importance of obtaining good quality polarization data in the future.

Non-thermal recombination - a neglected source of flare hard X-rays and fast electron diagnostic

Context. Flare Hard X-rays (HXRs) from non-thermal electrons are commonly treated as solely bremsstrahlung (free-free = f-f), recombination (free-bound = f-b) being neglected. This assumption is shown to be substantially in error, especially in hot sources, mainly due to recombination onto Fe ions. Aims. We analyse the effects on HXR spectra J(� ) and electron diagnostics by including non-thermal recombination onto heavy elements in our model. Methods. Using Kramers hydrogenic cross sections with effective Z = Zeff, we calculate f-f and f-b spectra for power-law electron spectra within both thin and thick target limits and for Maxwellians with summation over all important ions. Results. We find that non-thermal electron recombination, especially onto Fe, must, in general, be included with f-f for reliable spectral interpretation, when the HXR source is hot, such as occulted loops containing high ions of Fe (f-b cross-section ∝Z 4 ). The f-b contribution is greatest when the electron spectral index δ is large and any low energy cut-off Ec is small, because the electron flux

Calibration of the Fast Neutron Imaging Telescope (FNIT) Prototype Detector

The paper describes a novel detector for neutrons in the 1 to 20-MeV energy range with combined imaging and spectroscopic capabilities. The Fast Neutron Imaging Telescope (FNIT) was designed to detect solar neutrons from spacecraft deployed to the inner heliosphere. However, the potential application of this instrument to Special Nuclear Material (SNM) identification was also examined. In either case, neutron detection relies on double elastic neutron-proton (n-p) scattering in liquid scintillator. We optimized the design of FNIT through a combination of Monte Carlo simulations and lab measurements. We then assembled a scaled-down version of the full detector and assessed its performance by exposing it to a neutron beam and an SNM source. The results from these tests, which were used to characterize the response of the complete FNIT detector to fast neutrons, are presented herein.

Flare hard X-ray sources dominated by nonthermal recombination

It was recently shown that, in the hottest regions of flare plasma, nonthermal hard X-ray (HXR) emission in the few deka-keV range from nonthermal electrons by recombination (NTR) onto heavy ions (especially Fe) exceeds bremsstrahlung (NTB), contrary to earlier assumptions. Here we discuss what types of HXR events are so dominated. Though significant even at temperatures T down to 106 K, the dominance of such NTR radiation over NTB needs T > 10 MK in order for Fe22+ ions and above to be plentiful. Furthermore, even for an accelerated fraction of only 0.01, the total hot plasma thermal emission begins to exceed NTR only for T > 25 MK. The relative NTR contribution is greatest when the electron flux spectrum is steep and extends to low energies. Thus, in proper modeling of hot HXR sources, inclusion of NTR as well as NTB is essential and reduces the HXR electron number and power requirements by over an order of magnitude in some cases. This alleviates problems of electron acceleration efficiency, especially in coronal HXR sources. Even some chromospheric footpoint HXR sources may be NTR-dominated if the hot soft X-ray (SXR) footpoint plasma there contains fast electrons. Only a small fraction of the plasma emission measure observed in SXR footpoints need be in the form of nonthermals to provide the necessary HXR emission measure. Compared with the standard cold thick target (bremsstrahlung) model (CTTM), such a scenario would give fast electrons a lesser role in the flare energy budget and help solve various problems with the CTTM.

Inverse Compton X-rays from relativistic flare electrons and positrons

Context. In solar flares, inverse Compton scattering (ICS) of photospheric photons might give rise to detectable hard X-ray photon fluxes from the corona where ambient densities are too low for significant bremsstrahlung or recombination. γ-ray lines and continuum in some large flares imply the presence of the necessary ∼100 MeV electrons and positrons, the latter as by-products of GeV energy ions. Recent observations of coronal hard X-ray sources in particular prompt us to reconsider here the possible contribution of ICS. Aims. We aim to evaluate the ICS X-ray fluxes to be expected from prescribed populations of relativistic electrons and positrons in the solar corona. The ultimate aim is to determine if ICS coronal X-ray sources might offer a new diagnostic window on relativistic electrons and ions in flares. Methods. We use the complete formalism of ICS to calculate X-ray fluxes from possible populations of flare primary electrons and secondary positrons, paying attention to the incident photon angular distribution near the solar surface and thus improving on the assumption of isotropy made in previous solar discussions. Results. Both primary electrons and secondary positrons produce very hard ICS X-ray spectra. The anisotropic primary radiation field results in pronounced centre-to-limb variation in predicted fluxes and spectra, with the most intense spectra, extending to the highest photon energies, expected from limb flares. Acceptable numbers of electrons or positrons could account for RHESSI coronal X/γ-ray sources. Conclusions. Some coronal X-ray sources at least might be interpreted in terms of ICS by relativistic electrons or positrons, particularly when sources appear at such low ambient densities that bremsstrahlung appears implausible.

Imaging solar neutrons below 10 MeV in the inner heliosphere

Inner heliosphere measurements of the Sun can be conducted with the proposed Solar Sentinel spacecraft and mission. One of the key measurements that can be made inside the orbit of the Earth is that of lower energy neutrons that arise in flares from nuclear reactions. Solar flare neutrons below 10 MeV suffer heavy weak-decay losses before reaching 1 AU. For heliocentric radii as close as 0.3 AU, the number of surviving neutrons from a solar event is dramatically greater. Neutrons from 1-10 MeV provide a new measure of heavy ion interactions at low energies, where the vast majority of energetic ions reside. Such measurements are difficult because of locally generated background neutrons. An instrument to make these measurements must be compact, lightweight and efficient. We describe our progress in developing a low-energy neutron telescope that can operate and measure neutrons in the inner heliosphere and take a brief look at other possible applications for this detector.

Advanced characterization and simulation of SONNE: a fast neutron spectrometer for Solar Probe Plus

SONNE, the SOlar NeutroN Experiment proposed for Solar Probe Plus, is designed to measure solar neutrons from 1-20 MeV and solar gammas from 0.5-10 MeV. SONNE is a double scatter instrument that employs imaging to maximize its signal-to-noise ratio by rejecting neutral particles from non-solar directions. Under the assumption of quiescent or episodic small-flare activity, one can constrain the energy content and power dissipation by fast ions in the low corona. Although the spectrum of protons and ions produced by nanoflaring activity is unknown, we estimate the signal in neutrons and γ−rays that would be present within thirty solar radii, constrained by earlier measurements at 1 AU. Laboratory results and simulations will be presented illustrating the instrument sensitivity and resolving power.

Design optimization and performance capabilities of the fast neutron imaging telescope (FNIT)

We describe the design optimization process and performance characterization of a next generation neutron telescope, with imaging and energy measurement capabilities, sensitive to neutrons in the 1-20 MeV energy range. The response of the fast neutron imaging telescope (FNIT), its efficiency in neutron detection, energy resolution and imaging capabilities were characterized through a combination of lab tests and Monte Carlo simulations. Monte Carlo simulations, together with experimental data, are also being used in the development and testing of the image reconstruction algorithm. FNIT was initially conceived to study solar neutrons as a candidate instrument for the inner heliosphere sentinel (IHS) spacecraft. However, the design of this detector was eventually adapted to locate special nuclear material (SNM) sources for homeland security purposes, by detecting fission neutrons. In either case, the detection principle is based on multiple elastic neutron-proton scatterings in organic scintillator. By reconstructing event locations and measuring the recoil proton energies, the direction and energy spectrum of the primary neutron flux can be determined and neutron sources identified. This paper presents the most recent results arising from our efforts and outlines the performance of the FNIT detector.

Imaging and spectroscopy of fission neutrons with the FNIT experiment

The Fast Neutron Imaging Telescope (FNIT) instrument is a NA-22 funded project for the design, construction, calibration and modeling of an instrument specifically tailored to measure and identify sources of fission neutrons - a key signature of Special Nuclear Material (SNM). A neutron detector that is sensitive to this energy range is of utmost importance to stop the proliferation of these materials. The proof of concept of this instrument has been successfully demonstrated with a limited FNIT prototype. After being constructed and fine-tuned at the University of New Hampshire (UNH), the prototype was calibrated with quasi-monoenergetic neutron beams at Crocker Nuclear Laboratory. Extensive Monte Carlo calculations are currently in the advance stages for the modeling of FNIT. These simulations, along with the calibration and tests that have been performed with a 252Cf source at UNH, will be used to determine the instrument efficiency and response. Further instrument simulations will allow us to determine the best methods for spectral and imaging de-convolution. Ultimately, these methods will be implemented into “on-line” software being designed for real-time analysis algorithms to be used in conjunction with a fully populated, portable neutron telescope. We present the most recent laboratory and instrument modeling results.

Solar X-Ray Processes

Past analyses of solar flares have ignored nonthermal recombination (NTR) emission as a means of producing Hard X-rays (HXRs) in the corona and chromosphere. However, Brown and Mallik (2008, A&A, 481, 507) have shown that NTR can be significant and even exceed nonthermal bremsstrahlung (NTB) emission for certain flare conditions that are quite common. For hot enough plasma (T > 10 MK), HXR emission of a few deka-keV has a large contribution from NTR onto highly ionized heavy elements, especially Fe. Consequently, including NTR has implications for the magnitude and the form of the inferred electron spectrum, F(E), and hence for fast-electron density and energy budgets and for the acceleration mechanisms. We show under what circumstances NTR dominates in deka-keV HXR emission. It is important to note that at high temperatures, HXR emission from thermal electrons (recombination and bremsstrahlung) becomes important. However, NTR dominates over NTB without being swamped by thermal emission in the photon energy (e) regime of 20–30 keV and temperature range of 10–25MK (Fig. 1, left). By integrating the flux for all e > 20keV, i.e., looking at the source luminosity function above 20 keV, we were able to show that by including NTR, the acceleration requirements are less demanding for every event, but to varying degrees based on temperature (T), spectral index (δ) and electron low-energy cut-off (Ec). Our key result is that, for T > 10MK and δ ≈ 5, including NTR reduces the demand for nonthermal electrons by up to 85%. Our paper with these results will be submitted to ApJ Letters.