Qingqing Wei

Regulation of mitochondrial dynamics in acute kidney injury in cell culture and rodent models

The mechanism of mitochondrial damage, a key contributor to renal tubular cell death during acute kidney injury, remains largely unknown. Here, we have demonstrated a striking morphological change of mitochondria in experimental models of renal ischemia/reperfusion and cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity. This change contributed to mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization, release of apoptogenic factors, and consequent apoptosis. Following either ATP depletion or cisplatin treatment of rat renal tubular cells, mitochondrial fragmentation was observed prior to cytochrome c release and apoptosis. This mitochondrial fragmentation was inhibited by Bcl2 but not by caspase inhibitors. Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), a critical mitochondrial fission protein, translocated to mitochondria early during tubular cell injury, and both siRNA knockdown of Drp1 and expression of a dominant-negative Drp1 attenuated mitochondrial fragmentation, cytochrome c release, caspase activation, and apoptosis. Further in vivo analysis revealed that mitochondrial fragmentation also occurred in proximal tubular cells in mice during renal ischemia/reperfusion and cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity. Notably, both tubular cell apoptosis and acute kidney injury were attenuated by mdivi-1, a newly identified pharmacological inhibitor of Drp1. This study demonstrates a rapid regulation of mitochondrial dynamics during acute kidney injury and identifies mitochondrial fragmentation as what we believe to be a novel mechanism contributing to mitochondrial damage and apoptosis in vivo in mouse models of disease.

Bak regulates mitochondrial morphology and pathology during apoptosis by interacting with mitofusins

Mitochondrial injury, characterized by outer membrane permeabilization and consequent release of apoptogenic factors, is a key to apoptosis of mammalian cells. Bax and Bak, two multidomain Bcl-2 family proteins, provide a requisite gateway to mitochondrial injury. However it is unclear how Bax and Bak cooperate to provoke mitochondrial injury and whether their roles are redundant. Here, we have identified a unique role of Bak in mitochondrial fragmentation, a seemingly morphological event that contributes to mitochondrial injury during apoptosis. We show that mitochondrial fragmentation is attenuated in Bak-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts, baby mouse kidney cells, and, importantly, also in primary neurons isolated from brain cortex of Bak-deficient mice. In sharp contrast, Bax deficiency does not prevent mitochondrial fragmentation during apoptosis. Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL inhibit mitochondrial fragmentation, and their inhibitory effects depend on the presence of Bak. Reconstitution of Bak into Bax/Bak double-knockout cells restores mitochondrial fragmentation, whereas reconstitution of Bax is much less effective. Bak interacts with Mfn1 and Mfn2, two mitochondrial fusion proteins. During apoptosis, Bak dissociates from Mfn2 and enhances the association with Mfn1. Mutation of Bak in the BH3 domain prevents its dissociation from Mfn2 and diminishes its mitochondrial fragmentation activity. This study has uncovered a previously unrecognized function of Bak in the regulation of mitochondrial morphological dynamics during apoptosis. By this function, Bak may collaborate with Bax to permeabilize the outer membrane of mitochondria, unleashing the apoptotic cascade.

Autophagy is cytoprotective during cisplatin injury of renal proximal tubular cells

Autophagy is a cellular process of bulk degradation of damaged organelles, protein aggregates and other macromolecules in the cytoplasm. It is thought to be a general response to stress contributing to cell death; alternatively it might act as a cytoprotective mechanism. Here we found that administration of cisplatin induced the formation of autophagic vesicles and autophagosomes in mouse kidneys. In cultured proximal tubular cells, the nephrotoxin caused autophagy in a dose- and time-dependent manner prior to apoptosis. Notably, autophagy occurred within hours of cisplatin administration but this was partially suppressed by the p53 inhibitor pifithrin-alpha, suggesting that p53 is involved in autophagic signaling. This cisplatin-induced autophagy was attenuated in renal cells stably transfected with Bcl-2, suggesting an anti-autophagic role for this well-known anti-apoptotic protein. Blockade of autophagy with pharmacological inhibitors (3-methyladenine or bafilomycin) or shRNA knockdown of the autophagic gene Beclin increased tubular cell apoptosis during cisplatin treatment. Our study has found that autophagy occurs in acute kidney injury and this may be an important protective mechanism for cell survival.

Mouse model of ischemic acute kidney injury: technical notes and tricks

Renal ischemia-reperfusion leads to acute kidney injury (AKI), a major kidney disease associated with an increasing prevalence and high mortality rates. A variety of experimental models, both in vitro and in vivo, have been used to study the pathogenic mechanisms of ischemic AKI and to test renoprotective strategies. Among them, the mouse model of renal clamping is popular, mainly due to the availability of transgenic models and the relatively small animal size for drug testing. However, the mouse model is generally less stable, resulting in notable variations in results. Here, we describe a detailed protocol of the mouse model of bilateral renal ischemia-reperfusion. We share the lessons and experiences gained from our laboratory in the past decade. We further discuss the technical issues that account for the variability of this model and offer relevant solutions, which may help other investigators to establish a well-controlled, reliable animal model of ischemic AKI.

Differential Gender Differences in Ischemic and Nephrotoxic Acute Renal Failure

Background/Aims:Recent work has shown that female animals are more resistant to ischemic acute renal failure (ARF) than male animals. The mechanism underlying the gender difference is unclear. Moreover, whether the gender difference holds true for ARF induced by other insults is unknown. This study sought to determine the gender differences in ischemic and nephrotoxic ARF. Methods: Gender differences were tested in two experimental models of ARF. For ischemic ARF, bilateral clamping of renal pedicles was conducted in C57BL/6 and129/Sv mice followed by reperfusion. For nephrotoxic ARF, cisplatin was administered to the animals. Renal function, tissue damage, animal survival, and renal cell apoptosis were examined. Results: Ischemic ARF was significantly ameliorated in female mice, as shown by lower serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). Female mice also showed better renal histology, less apoptosis and caspase activation, and a much better survival rate than male mice following ischemic insult. On the contrary, female mice were more sensitive to cisplatin-induced ARF. In these animals, BUN increased at day 1 following cisplatin injection, while in males BUN increases were not shown until day 3. Higher levels of serum creatinine were also recorded in female mice. Renal histology showed severer necrotic tubular damage in females, although apoptosis and caspase activation appeared similar in both genders. Consistently, male mice survived better than females in the nephrotoxic model. Conclusion: While female mice were resistant to ischemic ARF, they appeared more sensitive to cisplatin-induced ARF. Investigation of the gender differences at the cellular and molecular levels might provide a new area for mechanistic study of ARF.

Bax and Bak have critical roles in ischemic acute kidney injury in global and proximal tubule–specific knockout mouse models

Bax and Bak, two pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins, have been implicated in acute kidney injury following renal ischemia/reperfusion; however, definitive evidence for a role of these genes in the disease process is lacking. Here we first examined two Bax-deficient mouse models and found that only conditional Bax-deletion specifically from proximal tubules could ameliorate ischemic acute kidney injury. Global (whole mouse) knockout of Bax enhanced neutrophil infiltration without significant effect on kidney injury. In contrast, global knockout of Bak protected mice from ischemic acute kidney injury with improved renal function. Interestingly, in these models, Bax or Bak knockout attenuated renal tubular cell apoptosis without significantly affecting necrotic tubular damage. Cytochrome c release in ischemic acute kidney injury was also suppressed in conditional Bax or global Bak-knockout mice. In addition, Bak deficiency prevented mitochondrial fragmentation in ischemic acute kidney injury. Thus, our gene-knockout studies support a critical role of Bax and Bak in tubular cell apoptosis in ischemic acute kidney. Furthermore, necrosis and apoptosis have distinguishable regulatory functions.

ERK-mediated suppression of cilia in cisplatin-induced tubular cell apoptosis and acute kidney injury

In kidneys, each tubular epithelial cell contains a primary cilium that protrudes from the apical surface. Ciliary dysfunction was recently linked to acute kidney injury (AKI) following renal ischemia-reperfusion. Whether ciliary regulation is a general pathogenic mechanism in AKI remains unclear. Moreover, the ciliary change during AKI and its underlying mechanism are largely unknown. Here we examined the change of primary cilium and its role in tubular cell apoptosis and AKI induced by cisplatin, a chemotherapy agent with notable nephrotoxicity. In cultured human proximal tubular HK-2 epithelial cells, cilia became shorter during cisplatin treatment, followed by apoptosis. Knockdown of Kif3a or Polaris (cilia maintenance proteins) reduced cilia and increased apoptosis during cisplatin treatment. We further subcloned HK-2 cells and found that the clones with shorter cilia were more sensitive to cisplatin-induced apoptosis. Mechanistically, cilia-suppressed cells showed hyperphosphorylation or activation of ERK. Inhibition of ERK by U0126 preserved cilia during cisplatin treatment and protected against apoptosis in HK-2 cells. In C57BL/6 mice, U0126 prevented the loss of cilia from proximal tubules during cisplatin treatment and protected against AKI. U0126 up-regulated Polaris, but not Kif3a, in kidney tissues. It is suggested that ciliary regulation by ERK plays a role in cisplatin-induced tubular apoptosis and AKI.

Heme oxygenase-1 induction contributes to renoprotection by G-CSF during rhabdomyolysis-associated acute kidney injury

Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) is renoprotective during acute kidney injury (AKI) induced by ischemia and cisplatin nephrotoxicity; however, the underlying mechanism is not entirely clear. Rhabdomyolysis is another important clinical cause of AKI, due to the release of nephrotoxins (e.g., heme) from disrupted muscles. The current study has determined the effects of G-CSF on rhabdomyolysis-associated AKI using in vivo and in vitro models. In C57BL/6 mice, intramuscular injection of glycerol induced AKI, which was partially prevented by G-CSF pretreatment. Consistently, glycerol-induced renal tissue damage was ameliorated by G-CSF. In addition, animal survival following the glycerol injection was improved from ∼30 to ∼70% by G-CSF. In cultured renal tubular cells, hemin-induced apoptosis was also suppressed by G-CSF. Interestingly, G-CSF induced heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1, a critical enzyme for heme/hemin degradation and detoxification) in both cultured tubular cells and mouse kidneys. Blockade of HO-1 with protoporphyrin IX zinc(II) (ZnPP) could largely diminish the protective effects of G-CSF. Together, these results demonstrated the renoprotective effects of G-CSF in rhabdomyolysis-associated AKI. Notably, G-CSF may directly protect against tubular cell injury under the disease condition by inducing HO-1.

OMA1 mediates OPA1 proteolysis and mitochondrial fragmentation in experimental models of ischemic kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is associated with mitochondrial fragmentation, which contributes to mitochondrial damage and tubular cell apoptosis. Mitochondrial fragmentation involves the cleavage of both mitochondrial outer and inner membranes. Cleavage of the outer membrane results from Drp-1-mediated fission activation and Bak-promoted fusion arrest, but the molecular mechanism of inner membrane cleavage remains elusive. OMA1-mediated proteolysis of OPA1, a key inner membrane fusion protein, was recently suggested to account for inner membrane cleavage during cell stress. In this study, we determined the role of OMA1 in OPA1 proteolysis and mitochondrial fragmentation in experimental models of ischemic AKI. In ATP-depletion injury, knockdown of OMA1 suppressed OPA1 proteolysis, mitochondrial fragmentation, cytochrome c release, and consequent apoptosis in renal proximal tubular cells. In mice, OMA1 deficiency prevented ischemic AKI as indicated by better renal function, less tubular damage, and lower apoptosis. OPA1 proteolysis and mitochondrial injury during ischemic AKI were ameliorated in OMA1-deficient mice. Thus, OMA1-mediated OPA1 proteolysis plays an important role in the disruption of mitochondrial dynamics in ischemic AKI.

Inhibition of ryanodine binding to sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles of cardiac muscle by Zn2+ ions

Using the assay of [³H]ryanodine binding to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the effect of Zn²⁺ on ryanodine receptors (RyRs) of cardiac muscle was investigated. There was no obvious change in the binding at [Zn²⁺]_f of less than 0.2 µM. However, a decrease of the binding became significant with raising [Zn²⁺]_f to 0.5 µM. The inhibitory effect of Zn²⁺ was [Zn²⁺]_f-dependent, with IC_50/ZnI of 2.1±0.4 µM (mean±S.D.). Scatchard analysis indicates that both an increase of K_d and a decrease of B_max were responsible for Zn²⁺-induced decrease of the binding. The Hill coefficient for this inhibitory effect of Zn²⁺ was between 0.8 and 1.2. The interactions of the effects of Zn²⁺ and various modulators of RyR indicate that the inhibitory effect of Zn²⁺ was mostly mediated through inhibiting Ca²⁺ activation sites (CaA) on RyR. Since the [Zn²⁺]_f dependence was not clearly changed by [Ca²⁺]_f, the inhibitory effect of Zn²⁺ may not be due to competition of Zn²⁺ with Ca²⁺ for CaA and probably is indirect. The inhibitory effect of Zn²⁺ could not be antagonized by 2 mM dithiothreitol, a thiol-reducing agent, suggesting that the binding of Zn²⁺ ions to RyRs of cardiac muscle is not accompanied by obvious change of redox state of the RyRs. In comparison with that seen in skeletal muscle [3], the effects of Zn²⁺ on ryanodine binding to the sarcoplasmic reticulum of cardiac muscle show several distinct differences. It is indicated that the effect of Zn²⁺ on RyRs may be isoform-dependent. The physiological significance of the effects of Zn²⁺ is discussed.