Qixian Chen

Targeted gene delivery by polyplex micelles with crowded PEG palisade and cRGD moiety for systemic treatment of pancreatic tumors

Adequate retention in systemic circulation is the preliminary requirement for systemic gene delivery to afford high bioavailability into the targeted site. Polyplex micelle formulated through self-assembly of oppositely-charged poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-polycation block copolymer and plasmid DNA has gained tempting perspective upon its advantageous core-shell architecture, where outer hydrophilic PEG shell offers superior stealth behaviors. Aiming to promote these potential characters toward systemic applications, we strategically introduced hydrophobic cholesteryl moiety at the ω-terminus of block copolymer, anticipating to promote not only the stability of polyplex structure but also the tethered PEG crowdedness. Moreover, Mw of PEG in the PEGylated polyplex micelle was elongated up to 20 kDa for expecting further enhancement in PEG crowdedness. Furthermore, cyclic RGD peptide as ligand molecule to integrin receptors was installed at the distal end of PEG in order for facilitating targeted delivery to the tumor site as well as promoting cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking behaviors. Thus constructed cRGD conjugated polyplex micelle with the elevated PEG shielding was challenged to a modeled intractable pancreatic cancer in mice, achieving potent tumor growth suppression by efficient gene expression of antiangiogenic protein (sFlt-1) at the tumor site.

Pancreatic cancer therapy by systemic administration of VEGF siRNA contained in calcium phosphate/charge-conversional polymer hybrid nanoparticles

Development of an efficient in vivo delivery vehicle of small interfering RNA (siRNA) is the key challenge for successful siRNA-based therapies. In this study, toward systemic delivery of siRNA to solid tumors, a smart polymer/calcium phosphate (CaP)/siRNA hybrid nanoparticle was prepared to feature biocompatibility, reversible stability and endosomal escape functionality using a pH sensitive block copolymer of poly(ethylene glycol) and charge-conversional polymer (PEG-CCP), of which anionic functional groups could be converted to cationic groups in an endosomal acidic condition for facilitated endosomal escape. Nanoparticles were confirmed to be approximately 100nm in size, narrowly dispersed and spherical. Also, the nanoparticle was highly tolerable in medium containing serum, while releasing the entrapped siRNA in a cytoplasm-mimicking ionic condition, presumably based on the equilibrium between CaP complexes and calcium ions. Further, the nanoparticle showed high gene silencing efficiency in cultured pancreatic cancer cells (BxPC3) without associated cytotoxicity. Ultimately, systemic administration of the nanoparticles carrying vascular endothelium growth factor (VEGF) siRNA led to the significant reduction in the subcutaneous BxPC3 tumor growth, well consistent with the enhanced accumulation of siRNA and the significant VEGF gene silencing (~68%) in the tumor. Thus, the hybrid nanoparticle was demonstrated to be a promising formulation toward siRNA-based cancer therapies.

PEGylated polyplex with optimized PEG shielding enhances gene introduction in lungs by minimizing inflammatory responses

Safety is a critical issue in clinical applications of nonviral gene delivery systems. Safe and effective gene introduction into the lungs was previously achieved using polyplexes from poly(ethyleneglycol) (PEG)-block-polycation [PEG-block-PAsp(DET)] and plasmid DNA (pDNA). Although PEGylated polyplexes appeared to be safe, an excess ratio of polycation to pDNA was needed to obtain sufficient transgene expression, which may cause toxicities shortly after gene introduction. In the present study, we investigated the combined use of two polymers, PEG-block-PAsp(DET) (B) and homo PAsp(DET) (H) across a range of mixing ratios to construct polyplexes. Although transgene expressions following in vitro transfections increased in parallel with increased proportions of H, polyplexes with B/H = 50/50 formulation produced the highest expression level following in vivo intratracheal administration. Higher proportions of H elicited high levels of cytokine induction with significant inflammation as assessed by histopathological examinations. Based on the aggregation behavior of polyplexes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALFs), we suggested that rapid aggregation of polyplexes in the lung induced acute inflammatory responses, resulting in reduced transgene expression. B/H formulation of polyplex can help to improve gene therapy for the respiratory system because it achieves both effective PEG shielding of polyplexes and functioning of PAsp(DET) polycations to enhance endosomal escape.

Polyplex micelles with thermoresponsive heterogeneous coronas for prolonged blood retention and promoted gene transfection.

Adequate retention in blood circulation is a prerequisite for construction of gene delivery carriers for systemic applications. The stability of gene carriers in the bloodstream requires them to effectively resist protein adsorption and maintain small size in the bloodstream avoiding dissociation, aggregation, and nuclease digestion under salty and proteinous medium. Herein, a mixture of two block catiomers consisting of the same cationic block, poly{N-[N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl]aspartamide} (PAsp(DET)), but varying shell-forming blocks, poly[2-(2-methoxyethoxy) ethyl methacrylate] (PMEO2MA), and poly[oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate] (POEGMA), was used to complex with plasmid DNA (pDNA) to fabricate polyplex micelles with mixed shells (MPMs) at 20 °C. The thermoresponsive property of PMEO2MA allows distinct phase transition from hydrophilic to hydrophobic by increasing incubation temperature from 20 to 37 °C, which results in a distinct heterogeneous corona containing hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions at the surface of the MPMs. Subsequent study verified that this transition promoted further condensation of pDNA, thereby giving rise to improved complex and colloidal stability. The proposed system has shown remarkable stability in salty and proteinous solution and superior tolerance to nuclease degradation. As compared with polyplex micelles formed from single POEGMA-b-PAsp(DET) block copolymer, in vivo circulation experiments in the bloodstream further confirmed that the retention time of MPMs was prolonged significantly. Moreover, the proposed system exhibited remarkably high cell transfection activity especially at low N/P ratios and negligible cytotoxicity and thus portends promising utility for systemic gene therapy applications.

Nitroxide-Based Macromolecular Contrast Agents with Unprecedented Transverse Relaxivity and Stability for Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Tumors

Metal-free magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) agents could overcome the established toxicity associated with metal-based agents in some patient populations and enable new modes of functional MRI in vivo. Herein, we report nitroxide-functionalized brush-arm star polymer organic radical contrast agents (BASP-ORCAs) that overcome the low contrast and poor in vivo stability associated with nitroxide-based MRI contrast agents. As a consequence of their unique nanoarchitectures, BASP-ORCAs possess per-nitroxide transverse relaxivities up to ∼44-fold greater than common nitroxides, exceptional stability in highly reducing environments, and low toxicity. These features combine to provide for accumulation of a sufficient concentration of BASP-ORCA in murine subcutaneous tumors up to 20 h following systemic administration such that MRI contrast on par with metal-based agents is observed. BASP-ORCAs are, to our knowledge, the first nitroxide MRI contrast agents capable of tumor imaging over long time periods using clinical high-field 1H MRI techniques.

Rod‐to‐Globule Transition of pDNA/PEG–Poly(l‐Lysine) Polyplex Micelles Induced by a Collapsed Balance Between DNA Rigidity and PEG Crowdedness

The role of poly(ethylene-glycol) (PEG) in rod-shaped polyplex micelle structures, having a characteristic core of folded plasmid DNA (pDNA) and a shell of tethered PEG chains, is investigated using PEG-detachable polyplex micelles. Rod shapes undergo change to compacted globule shapes by removal of PEG from polyplex micelles prepared from block copolymer with acid-labile linkage between PEG and poly(l-lysine) (PLys) through exposure to acidic milieu. This structural change supports the previous investigation on the rod shapes that PEG shell prevents the DNA structure from being globule shaped as the most favored structure in minimizing surface area. Noteworthy, despite the PEG is continuously depleted, the structural change does not occur in gradual shortening manner but the rod shapes keep their length unchanged and abruptly transform into globule shapes. Analysis of PEG density reveals the transition occurred when tethered PEG of rod shapes has decreased to a critical crowdedness, i.e., discontacted with neighboring PEG, which eventually illuminates another contribution, rigidity of DNA packaged as bundle in the rod shapes, in addition to the steric repulsion of PEG, in sustaining rod shapes. This investigation affirms significant role of PEG and also DNA rigidity as bundle in the formation of rod-shaped structures enduring the quest of compaction of charge-neutralized DNA in the polyplex micelles.

Self-sufficing H2O2-responsive nanocarriers through tumor-specific H2O2 production for synergistic oxidation-chemotherapy

One of distinct features in tumor tissues is the elevated concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during tumor immortality, proliferation and metastasis. However, ROS-responsive materials are rarely utilized in the field of in vivo tumoral ROS-responsive applications due to the fact that the intrinsic ROS level in the tumors could not escalate to an adequate level that the developed materials can possibly respond. Herein, palmitoyl ascorbate (PA) as a prooxidant for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production in tumor tissue is strategically compiled into a H2O2-responsive camptothecin (CPT) polymer prodrug micelle, which endowed the nanocarriers with self-sufficing H2O2 stimuli in tumor tissues. Molecular oncology manifests the hallmarks of tumoral physiology with deteriorating propensity in eliminating hazardous ROS. H2O2 production was demonstrated to specifically sustain in tumors, which not only induced tumor cell apoptosis by elevated oxidation stress but also served as autochthonous H2O2 resource to trigger CPT release for chemotherapy. Excess H2O2 and released CPT could penetrate into cells efficiently, which showed synergistic cytotoxicity toward cancer cells. Systemic therapeutic trial revealed potent tumor suppression of the proposed formulation via synergistic oxidation-chemotherapy. This report represents a novel nanomedicine platform combining up-regulation of tumoral H2O2 level and self-sufficing H2O2-responsive drug release to achieve novel synergistic oxidation-chemotherapy.

Aggregation-Induced-Emissive Molecule Incorporated into Polymeric Nanoparticulate as FRET Donor for Observing Doxorubicin Delivery.

Tetraphenylethene (TPE) derivatives characterized with distinct aggregation-induced-emission, attempted to aggregate with doxorubicin (Dox) to formulate the interior compartment of polymeric nanoparticulate, served as fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) donor to promote emission of acceptor Dox. Accordingly, this FRET formulation allowed identification of Dox in complexed form by detecting FRET. Important insight into the Dox releasing can be subsequently explored by extracting complexed Dox (FRET) from the overall Dox via direct single-photon excitation of Dox. Of note, functional catiomers were used to complex with FRET partners for a template formulation, which was verified to induce pH-responsive release in the targeted subcellular compartment. Hence, this well-defined multifunctional system entitles in situ observation of the drug releasing profile and insight on drug delivery journey from the tip of injection vein to the subcellular organelle of the targeted cells.

Probe Intracellular Trafficking of a Polymeric DNA Delivery Vehicle by Functionalization with an Aggregation-Induced Emissive Tetraphenylethene Derivative

Characteristic aggregation-induced quenching of π-fluorophores imposed substantial hindrance to their utilization in nanomedicine for insight into microscopic intracellular trafficking of therapeutic payload. To address this obstacle, we attempted to introduce a novel aggregation-induced emission (AIE) fluorophore into the cationic polymer, which was further used for formulation of a gene delivery carrier. Note that the selective restriction of the intramolecular rotation of the AIE fluorophore through its covalent bond to the polymer conduced to immense AIE. Furthermore, DNA payload labeled with the appropriate fluorophore as the Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) acceptor verified a facile strategy to trace intracellular DNA releasing activity relying on the distance limitation requested by FRET (AIE fluorophore as FRET donor). Moreover, the hydrophobic nature of the AIE fluorophore appeared to promote colloidal stability of the constructed formulation. Together with other chemistry functionalization strategies (including endosome escape), the ultimate formulation exerted dramatic gene transfection efficiency. Hence, this report manifested a first nanomedicine platform combining AIE and FRET for microscopic insight into DNA intracellular trafficking activity.

A Targeted and Stable Polymeric Nanoformulation Enhances Systemic Delivery of mRNA to Tumors

The high vulnerability of mRNA necessitates the manufacture of delivery vehicles to afford adequate protection in the biological milieu. Here, mRNA was complexed with a mixture of cRGD-poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-polylysine (PLys) (thiol) and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM)-PLys(thiol). The ionic complex core consisting of opposite-charged PLys and mRNA was crosslinked though redox-responsive disulfide linkage, thereby avoiding structural disassembly for exposure of mRNA to harsh biological environments. Furthermore, PNIPAM contributed to prolonged survival in systemic circulation by presenting a spatial barrier in impeding accessibility of nucleases, e.g., RNase, due to the thermo-responsive hydrophilic-hydrophobic transition behavior upon incubation at physiological temperature enabling translocation of PNIPAM from shell to intermediate barrier. Ultimately, the cRGD ligand attached to the formulation demonstrated improved tumor accumulation and potent gene expression, as manifested by virtue of facilitated cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking. These results indicate promise for the utility of mRNA as a therapeutic tool for disease treatment.