Quinlyn A. Soltow

Nitric oxide and AMPK cooperatively regulate PGC-1α in skeletal muscle cells

Nitric oxide (NO) induces mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle cells via upregulation of the peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor‐γ coactivator 1α (PGC‐1α). Further, we have shown that nitric oxide interacts with the metabolic sensor enzyme, AMPK. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that nitric oxide and AMPK act synergistically to upregulate PGC‐1α mRNA expression and stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis in culture. L6 myotubes treated with nitric oxide donors, S‐nitroso‐N‐penicillamine (SNAP, 25 μm) or diethylenetriamine‐NONO (DETA‐NO, 50 μm), exhibited elevated AMPK phosphorylation, PGC‐1α mRNA and protein, and basal and uncoupled mitochondrial respiration (P < 0.05). Pre‐treatment of cultures with the AMPK inhibitor, Compound C, prevented these effects. Knockdown of AMPKα1 in L6 myotubes using siRNA reduced AMPKα protein content and prevented upregulation of PGC‐1α mRNA by DETA‐NO. Meanwhile, siRNA knockdown of AMPKα2 had no effect on total AMPKα protein content or PGC‐1α mRNA. These results suggest that NO effects on PGC‐1α expression are mediated by AMPKα1. Paradoxically, we found that the AMPK‐activating compound, AICAR, induced NO release from L6 myotubes, and that AICAR‐induced upregulation of PGC‐1α mRNA was prevented by inhibition of NOS with NG‐nitro‐l‐arginine methyl ester (l‐NAME, 1 mm). Additionally, incubation of isolated mouse extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles with 2 mm AICAR for 20 min or electrical stimulation (10 Hz, 13 V) for 10 min induced phosphorylation of AMPKα (P < 0.05), which was completely prevented by pre‐treatment with the NOS inhibitor, l‐NG‐monomethyl arginine (l‐NMMA, 1 mm). These data identify the AMPKα1 isoform as the mediator of NO‐induced effects in skeletal muscle cells. Further, this study supports a proposed model of synergistic interaction between AMPK and NOS that is critical for maintenance of metabolic function in skeletal muscle cells.

Nitric oxide facilitates NFAT-dependent transcription in mouse myotubes.

Intracellular calcium transients in skeletal muscle cells initiate phenotypic adaptations via activation of calcineurin and its effector nuclear factor of activated t-cells (NFAT). Furthermore, endogenous production of nitric oxide (NO) via calcium-calmodulin-dependent NO synthase (NOS) is involved in skeletal muscle phenotypic plasticity. Here, we provide evidence that NO enhances calcium-dependent nuclear accumulation and transcriptional activity of NFAT and induces phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta) in C2C12 myotubes. The calcium ionophore A23187 (1 microM for 9 h) or thapsigargin (2 microM for 4 h) increased NFAT transcriptional activity by seven- and fourfold, respectively, in myotubes transiently transfected with an NFAT-dependent reporter plasmid (pNFAT-luc, Stratagene). Cotreatment with the NOS-inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME; 5 mM) or the guanylate cyclase inhibitor 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ; 10 microM) prevented the calcium effects on NFAT activity. The NO donor diethylenetriamine-NONO (DETA-NO; 10 microM) augmented the effects of A23187 on NFAT-dependent transcription. Similarly, A23187 (0.4 microM for 4 h) caused nuclear accumulation of NFAT and increased phosphorylation (i.e., inactivation) of GSK-3beta, whereas cotreatment with L-NAME or ODQ inhibited these responses. Finally, the NO donor 3-(2-hydroxy-2-nitroso-1-propylhydrazino)-1-propanamine (PAPA-NO; 1 microM for 1 h) increased phosphorylation of GSK-3beta in a manner dependent on guanylate cyclase activity. We conclude that NOS activity mediates calcium-induced phosphorylation of GSK-3beta and activation of NFAT-dependent transcription in myotubes. Furthermore, these effects of NO are guanylate cyclase-dependent.

Supplemental nitric oxide augments satellite cell activity on cultured myofibers from aged mice

Skeletal muscle regenerative potential is reduced with aging. We hypothesized that in vitro activation of muscle satellite cells would be compromised, and that nitric oxide (NO) supplementation would improve satellite cell activity in old muscle. Single intact myofibers were isolated from the gastrocnemius muscles of young (2 mo), adult (10 mo), and aged (22 mo) mice. Fibers were centrifuged to stimulate satellite cells and incubated with L-arginine (2mM), the NO donor, diethylenetriamine NONOate (DETA-NO; 10 microM), or control media for 48 h. The number of activated satellite cells after centrifugation was reduced in aged fibers compared to young and adult. L-arginine or DETA-NO treatment increased satellite cell activation in all age groups. However, an age-dependent deficit in satellite cell activity persisted within treatment groups. In separate fibers, exogenous HGF was equally effective in activating satellite cells across age groups, indicating that events downstream of HGF release are intact in aged muscle. These data suggest that l-arginine bioavailability and NO production limit muscle satellite cell activity in response to a submaximal mechanical stimulus, regardless of age. Further, the decline in satellite cell activity in early senescence can be partially abrogated by exogenous L-arginine or an NO donor.

Nitric oxide reverses prednisolone-induced inactivation of muscle satellite cells

Long‐term corticosteroid therapy causes myopathy and can inhibit regeneration of skeletal muscle. Therefore, we hypothesized that corticosteroid exposure reduces satellite cell activity in skeletal myofibers. Male Swiss–Webster mice were injected daily for 8 weeks with prednisolone (GC) or vehicle (control). Single myofibers were isolated from the gastrocnemius, centrifuged to mechanically activate satellite cells, and maintained in culture for 48 h. Both constitutive nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms were reduced in muscle by GC treatment (nNOS: −30%, eNOS: −34%). Fewer myogenic (myoD+) cells emanated from GC myofibers compared to control (−61%, P < 0.05). Supplementation of culture media with the nitric oxide donor, diethylenetriamine NONOate (DETA‐NO; 5–50 μM), caused a dose‐dependent increase in the number of myoD+ cells arising from both control and GC myofibers (P < 0.05), and 10 and 50 μM DETA‐NO eliminated the GC‐induced deficit in myogenic cells (P > 0.05). Therefore, supplementation of GC myofibers with DETA‐NO restores satellite cell activity to control levels. Nitric oxide production could be an important therapeutic target for the prevention of corticosteroid myopathy. Muscle Nerve, 2007

Cessation of cyclic stretch induces atrophy of C2C12 myotubes

Cyclic stretch of differentiated myotubes mimics the loading pattern of mature skeletal muscle. We tested a cell culture model of disuse atrophy by the cessation of repetitive bouts of cyclic stretch in differentiated C2C12 myotubes. Myotubes were subjected to cyclic strain (12%, 0.7 Hz, 1 h/d) on collagen-I-coated Bioflex plates using a computer-controlled vacuum stretch apparatus (Flexcell Int.) for 2 (2dSTR) or 5 (5dSTR) consecutive days. Control cultures were maintained in the Bioflex plates without cyclic stretch for 2d or 5d. Additionally, some cultures were stretched for 2 d followed by cessation of stretch for 3d (2dSTR3dCES). Cyclic stretching (5dSTR) increased myotube diameter and overall myotube area by ~2-fold (P<0.05) compared to non-stretched controls, while cessation of stretch (2dSTR3dCES) resulted in ~80% smaller myotubes than 5dSTR cells, and 40-50% smaller than non-stretched controls (P<0.05). Further, the calpain-dependent cleavage products of αII-spectrin (150 kDa) and talin increased (3.5-fold and 2.2-fold, respectively; P<0.05) in 2dSTR3dCES myotubes, compared to non-stretched controls. The 1h cyclic stretching protocol acutely increased the phosphorylation of Akt (+4.5-fold; P<0.05) and its downstream targets, FOXO3a (+4.2-fold; P<0.05) and GSK-3β (+1.8-fold; P<0.05), which returned to baseline by 48 h after cessation of stretch. Additionally, nitric oxide production increased during stretch and co-treatment with the NOS inhibitor, l-NAME, inhibited the effects of stretch and cessation of stretch. We conclude that cessation of cyclic stretching causes myotube atrophy by activating calpains and decreasing activation of Akt. Stretch-induced myotube growth, as well as activation of atrophy signaling with cessation of stretch, are dependent on NOS activity.

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase is involved in calcium-induced Akt signaling in mouse skeletal muscle

We hypothesized that targeted mutation of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) gene would reduce Akt-related signaling events in skeletal muscle cells, compared to wild type (WT) controls. Results show that slow myosin heavy chain (type I/beta) expression and the abundance of slow-twitch fibers are reduced in plantaris muscle of eNOS(-/-) mice, compared to WT. Further, basal phosphorylation of Akt (p-Akt (Ser-473)/total Akt) and GSK-3beta (GSK-3beta (Ser-9)/total GSK-3beta) are reduced 60-70% in primary myotubes from eNOS(-/-) mice. Treatment with the calcium ionophore, A23187 (0.4 microM, 1 h), increased phosphorylation of Akt and GSK-3beta by approximately 2-fold (P<0.05) in myotubes from WT mice, but had no effect on phosphorylation of these proteins in eNOS(-/-) myotubes. Additionally, A23187 treatment failed to induce nuclear translocation of the transcription factor, NFATc1, in eNOS(-/-) myotubes. Treatment with the nitric oxide donor, propylamine propylamine NONOate (PAPA-NO; 1 microM for 1 h) increased Akt and GSK-3beta phosphorylation, and induced NFATc1 nuclear translocation in WT and eNOS(-/-) myotubes, and eliminated differences from WT in the NOS knockout cultures. Parallel experiments in C2C12 myotubes found that Akt phosphorylation induced by NO or the guanylate cyclase activator, YC-1, is prevented by co-treatment with either a guanylate cyclase or PI3K inhibitor (10 microM ODQ or 25 microM LY2904002, respectively). These data suggest that eNOS activity is necessary for calcium-induced activation of the Akt pathway, and that nitric oxide is sufficient to elevate Akt activity in primary myotubes. NO appears to influence Akt signaling through a cGMP, PI3K-dependent pathway.

Correction: Metabolic Characterization of the Common Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

The creatinine values in Tables ​Tables11 and ​and2,2, and S1 Table are incorrect. Please see the corrected tables, with the correct creatinine values, here. Table 1 Plasma metabolite concentrations in common marmosets. Table 2 Marmoset plasma metabolite concentrations according to age group and sex.