R. A. Strachan

Transpression and transtension zones

Abstract Transpression and transtension are strike-slip deformations that deviate from simple shear because of a component of, respectively, shortening or extension orthogonal to the deformation zone. These three-dimensional non-coaxial strains develop principally in response to obliquely convergent or divergent relative motions across plate boundary and other crustal deformation zones at various scales. The basic constant-volume strain model with a vertical stretch can be modified to allow for volume change, lateral stretch, an oblique simple shear component, heterogeneous strain and steady-state transpression and transtension. The more sophisticated triclinic models may be more realistic but their mathematical complexity may limit their general application when interpreting geological examples. Most transpression zones generate flattening (k < 1) and transtension zones constrictional (k > 1) finite strains, although exceptions can occur in certain situations. Relative plate motion vectors, instantaneous strain (or stress) axes and finite strain axes are all oblique to one another in transpression and transtension zones. Kinematic partitioning of non-coaxial strike-slip and coaxial strains appears to be a characteristic feature of many such zones, especially where the far-field (plate) displacement direction is markedly oblique (<20°) to the plate or deformation zone boundary. Complex foliation, lineation and other structural patterns are also expected in such settings, resulting from switching or progressive rotation of finite strain axes. The variation in style and kinematic linkage of transpressional and transtensional structures at different crustal depths is poorly understood at present but may be of central importance to understanding the relationship between deformation in the lithospheric mantle and crust. Existing analyses of obliquely convergent and divergent zones highlight the importance of kinematic boundary conditions and imply that stress may be of secondary importance in controlling the dynamics of deformation in the crust and lithosphere.

Granite magma generation, ascent and emplacement within a transpressional orogen

Crustal thickening during transpressive orogenesis may produce anatectic granites which may then localize deformation leading to transcurrent movement. Granites may be transported from sites of generation through the mid-crust in dyke-like channelways within relatively narrow strike-slip shear zones which link to major fault zones in the upper crust. Extensional jogs within fault systems provide developing sites for the assembly of plutons from magma arriving from below. The model is based upon observations from the Cadomian belt of NW France which exposes sections through middle and upper levels of the late Precambrian crust within different elements of the orogen. The mechanism provides a favourable alternative to diapirism, and explains the common collocation of granites and shear zone/fault systems within orogenic belts.

Sinistral transpression and the Silurian closure of Iapetus

In recent years conflicting models have been proposed for the late Caledonian closure of the Iapetus ocean between Laurentia, Baltica and the Avalonian terranes. Recently published structural and stratigraphic evidence from Britain, Scandinavia, East Greenland and Newfoundland is reviewed and shows that Western Avalonia, Eastern Avalonia and Baltica all docked sinistrally against Laurentia in the Silurian. Western Avalonia collided sinistrally against the previously accreted Gander and Dunnage arc terranes on the Appalachian margin of Laurentia in mid-Silurian time and then shifted dextrally during the Acadian orogeny in the Devonian. Oblique collision of Baltica with the Greenland margin induced southeasterly crustal stacking in the Scandian orogen and sinistral transpression in the NE Greenland Caledonides, and was followed by more nearly orthogonal convergence. Eastern Avalonia underwent anticlockwise with the Scottish ‘corner’ of Laurentia, rotating into a re-entrant between Laurentia and Baltica. Some implications of this Silurian closure model are that convergence in the Tornquist zone was modest at that time, and that the Acadian (Devonian) deformation in the northern Appalahians and Britain had a subsequent external cause, most likely the impingement of Armorica and Iberia due to the northward drift of Gondwana.

A reappraisal of the Sibson-Scholz fault zone model : the nature of the frictional to viscous ("brittle-ductile") transition along a long-lived, crustal-scale fault, Outer Hebrides, Scotland.

The widely cited Sibson-Scholz conceptual fault zone model suggests that seismically active, upper crustal brittle faults pass downward across a predominantly thermally controlled transition at 10–15 km depth into ductile shear zones in which deformation occurs by aseimic viscous creep. The crustal-scale Outer Hebrides Fault Zone (OHFZ) in NW Scotland has been described as the type example of such a continental fault zone. It cuts Precambrian basement gneisses and is deeply exhumed, allowing direct study of the deformation products and processes that occur across a wide range of crustal depths. A number of fault rock assemblages are recognized to have formed during a long-lived displacement history lasting in excess of 1000 Myr. During Caledonian movements that are recognized along much of the 190 km onshore fault trace, brittle, cataclasite-bearing faults in the west of the OHFZ are unequivocally overprinted to the east by a younger fabric related to a network of ductile shear zones. Field observations and regional geochronological data demonstrate that there is no evidence for reheating of the fault zone due to thrust-related crustal thickening or shear heating. Microstructural observations show that the onset of viscous deformation was related to a major influx of hydrous fluids. This led to retrogression, with the widespread development of new finegrained phyllosilicate-bearing fault rocks (“phyllonites”), and the onset of fluid-assisted, grain size-sensitive diffusional creep in the most highly deformed and altered parts of the fault zone. Phyllonitic fault rocks also occur in older, more deeply exhumed parts of the fault zone, implying that phyllonitization had previously occurred at an earlier stage and that this process is possible over a wide temperature (depth) range within crustal-scale faults. Our data provide an observational basis for recent theoretical and experimental studies which suggest that crustal-scale faults containing interconnected networks of phyllosilicate-bearing fault rocks will be characterized by long-term relative weakness and shallow (∼5 km) frictional-viscous transition zones. Similar processes acting at depth may provide an explanation for the apparent weakness of presently active structures such as the San Andreas Fault.

Interlinked system of ductile strike slip and thrusting formed by Caledonian sinistral transpression in northeastern Greenland

The geometry and kinematic evolution of oblique convergence zones are poorly understood, especially in the more deeply eroded ductile roots of ancient orogenic belts. As a consequence, evidence for major lateral displacements may remain undetected. In Dronning Louise Land, northeastern Greenland, a major partitioned system of strike-slip and ductile thrust shear zones has formed in response to hitherto unrecognized Caledonian sinistral transpression. This system formed at mid-crustal depths (amphibolite facies), possibly due to oblique collision between Baltica and Laurentia during Ordovician to Early Devonian time. An early phase of low-angle strike slip is superseded by synchronous compressional thrusting and high-angle sinistral displacements. These are partitioned into shear zones arranged in a fashion similar to the fault patterns observed in the hanging walls of modern-day oblique convergent margins. Left-lateral displacements in the eastern Greenland Caledonides are likely to be tens to hundreds of kilometres. A direct correspondence between stretching lineations and Caledonian plate motion vectors is unlikely, although the strike-slip shear zone is probably parallel to the Laurentian paleo-plate margin.

U–Pb (LA–ICP-MS) dating of detrital zircons from Cambrian clastic rocks in Avalonia: erosion of a Neoproterozoic arc along the northern Gondwanan margin

Most Neoproterozoic and Early Palaeozoic tectonic syntheses place Avalonia and related peri-Gondwanan terranes facing an open ocean along the northern margin of Gondwana, thereby providing important constraints for palaeocontinental reconstructions during that time interval. However, the precise location of Avalonia along the margin and its position relative to other peri-Gondwanan terranes is controversial. We present laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry U–Pb data for detrital zircons from Cambrian clastic rocks in two localities in Avalonia: the Antigonish Highlands of Nova Scotia (62 analyses) and the British Midlands (55 analyses). The data from both samples are very similar, and taken together indicate an overwhelming dominance of Neoproterozoic (c. 580–680 Ma) or Early Cambrian source rocks with minor older Neoproterozoic clusters at c. 710 Ma or of Mesoproterozoic age, three Palaeoproterozoic zircons and one Archaean zircon. The zircons can all be derived from local Avalonian sources. The Neoproterozoic zircons are attributed to erosion of the underlying Avalonian arc. Mesoproterozoic and Palaeoproterozoic zircons of similar ages are also found in Avalonian Neoproterozoic clastic rocks and their presence in the Cambrian clastic rocks could represent recycling of Neoproterozoic strata and do not necessarily imply the presence of Mesoproterozoic or Palaeoproterozoic basement rocks within their respective drainage basins. Comparison with the data from the Neoproterozoic arc-related clastic sequences suggests significant differences between their respective drainage systems. Whereas the Neoproterozoic data require extensive drainage systems, the Cambrian data can be attributed to localized drainage systems. The change in drainage patterns could reflect rifting and isolation of Avalonia from Amazonia between c. 585 and 540 Ma. Alternatively, it might reflect the creation of topographical barriers along the northern Gondwanan margin, in a manner analogous to the Cenozoic rise of the Andes or the creation of the Basin-and-Range topography in the Western USA.

The structure and rheological evolution of reactivated continental fault zones: a review and case study

Abstract Repeated reactivation of structures and reworking of crustal volumes are characteristic, though not ubiquitous, features of continental deformation. Reactivated faults and shear zones exposed in the deeply exhumed parts of ancient orogenic belts present opportunities to study processes that influence the mechanical properties of long-lived fault zones at different palaeo-depths. Ancient basement fault systems typically comprise heterogeneous, superimposed assemblages of fault rocks formed at different times and depths for which down-temperature thermal histories are most common. Several lithological and environmental factors influence the evolution of fault rock fabrics and rheology, but most fault/shear zone arrays appear to develop as self-organized deformation systems. Once mature, the kinematic and mechanical evolution of the system is strongly influenced by the rheological behaviour of the interconnected fault/shear zone network. A case study from the crustal-scale Great Glen Fault Zone (GGFZ), Scotland, reveals a complex evolution of mid- to upper-crustal deformation textures formed adjacent to the frictional-viscous transition. Fluid influx in the mid-crust has led to reaction softening of the rock aggregate as strong pre-existing phases such as feldspar are replaced by fine-grained, strongly aligned aggregates of weak phyllosilicates. In addition, a grainsize-controlled switch to fluid-assisted diffusional creep occurs in the highest strain regions of the fault zone. It is proposed that this led to a shallowing and narrowing of the frictional-viscous transition and to long-term overall weakening of the fault zone relative to the surrounding wall-rocks. Cataclasis is particularly important in the deeper part of the frictional regime as it helps to promote retrograde metamorphism and changes in deformation regime, by both reducing grainsize and promoting pervasive fluid influx along fault strands due to grain-scale dilatancy. Equivalent processes are likely to occur along many other long-lived, crustal-scale fault zones.

Dating deformation and cooling in the Caledonian thrust nappes of north Sutherland, Scotland: insights from 40Ar/39Ar and Rb–Sr chronology

40Ar/39Ar and Rb–Sr mineral ages have been determined from various lithologies exposed in the Caledonian foreland and structurally overlying thrust nappes of north Sutherland, Scotland. Rb–Sr muscovite ages of c.u2009428, c.u2009421 and c.u2009413u2009Ma obtained from Moine Thrust Zone mylonites are interpreted to date closely regional thrusting during the Late Silurian to Early Devonian. 40Ar/39Ar muscovite ages within the lower parts of the Moine nappe are mostly anomalously old with respect to Rb–Sr analyses of muscovites from the same samples; it is likely that this discrepancy results from a component of extraneous or ‘excess’ argon. 40Ar/39Ar hornblende ages and Rb–Sr and 40Ar/39Ar muscovite ages obtained from structurally higher metamorphic units in the Caledonian thrust nappes generally range between c.u2009440u2009Ma and c.u2009410u2009Ma. These ages are interpreted to date cooling during and following ‘D2’ regional thrusting and folding within internal sectors of the nappe sequence. A possible tectonic model involves the Silurian collision of Baltica with Scottish segments of Laurentia resulting in the Scandian orogeny and broadly coeval Moine Thrust Zone. D2 structures were superimposed on structures and metamorphic fabrics formed during a regional Mid-Ordovician tectonothermal event dated previously at c.u2009470–460u2009Ma. Syn-D2 temperatures were generally >600°C and sufficient to achieve more or less complete thermal rejuvenation of Rb–Sr and 40Ar/39Ar isotopic systems in muscovite and hornblende, even in areas of low D2 strain.

Short Paper: Cadomian terrane tectonics and magmatism in the Armorican Massif

The North Armorican composite terrane, NW France, is a collage of displaced terranes which result from the amalgamation of Cadomian continental arcs and marginal basin complexes by sinistral transpression along a continental margin above a subduction zone. Early Cadomian arc activity occurred at c. 700-650 Ma, but terrane accretion did not occur until c. 540 Ma, and post-tectonic magmatism persisted well into the Palaeozoic. Cadomian events thus span a considerably greater period than previously supposed.

U–Pb geochronology of the Fort Augustus granite gneiss: constraints on the timing of Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic tectonothermal events in the NW Highlands of Scotland

The West Highland granite gneiss suite in Inverness-shire, Scotland, represents a series of S-type, anatectic granites formed by partial melting of host Neoproterozoic metasediments of the Moine Supergroup. U–Pb (SHRIMP) dating of zircons from a member of the suite, the Fort Augustus granite gneiss, indicates that the granitic protolith to the gneiss was intruded at 870±30u2009Ma. This is indistinguishable from the published age determined by the same method for the Ardgour granite gneiss at Glenfinnan, thus supporting the assumption that the various members of the West Highland granite gneiss are part of a single intrusive suite. The spread of ages from the zircon cores (1626–947u2009Ma) is interpreted to indicate a Proterozoic source terrain for the Moine sediments that were later melted to form the granitic protolith. A U–Pb age of 470±2u2009Ma obtained for titanite in the Fort Augustus granite gneiss is interpreted to date amphibolite-facies metamorphism during the early to mid-Ordovician Grampian Orogeny. The emerging similarity in the timing of this event either side of the Great Glen Fault implies that this structure does not juxtapose crustal blocks with significantly different histories with respect to the Grampian Orogeny.