R. C. Martin

Comparison of consumer perceptions and preference toward organic versus conventionally produced foods: A review and update of the literature

Growing interest in organic agriculture has prompted numerous studies that compare various aspects of organic and conventionally produced foods. This paper provides a comprehensive evaluation of empirical studies comparing organic products and conventionally grown alternatives. The emphasis is on key organic consumer demand and marketing issues, including: (1) the implications of an economic definition of organically grown food for consumer demand; (2) attributes that shoppers consider most when comparing organic with conventionally grown products; (3) level and characteristics of consumer knowledge and awareness about organic food; (4) assessment methods and characteristics of organic consumer attitudes and preferences; (5) size of price premium and characteristics of consumers’ willingness-to-pay for organic products; and (6) profile of organic consumers. Overall, although there is some knowledge and awareness about organic products, consumers are not consistent in their interpretation of what is organic. Secondly, while consumers typically understand the broad issues about organic foods, many tend not to understand the complexities and niceties of organic farming practices and organic food quality attributes. Uncertainty regarding the true attributes of organic, and skepticism about organic labels, part of which stems from reported cases of (inadvertent) mislabeling, and product misrepresentation, and partly because of nonuniform organic standards and certification procedures, may hold some consumers back from purchasing organic. Thirdly, concern for human health and safety, which is a key factor that influences consumer preference for organic food, is consistent with observed deterioration in human health over time and, therefore, motivates consumers to buy organic food as insurance and/or investment in health. Fourthly, the proportion of consumers who are willing to pay a price premium for organic food decreases with premium level. On the other hand, premiums tend to increase with (combinations of) preferred attributes. In addition, demand tends to depend more on the price differential with respect to conventionally grown products, than on actual price. In contrast to sensitivity of demand to changes in price, income elasticity of demand for organic foods is generally small. Finally, it is important for policy analysts and researchers to note that organic fresh fruits and vegetables currently dominate the organic consumers food basket. Furthermore, it is not clear whether frequent buyers consider particular organic products (e.g., organic meat) as normal goods, or if consumers consider such products as luxury goods.

Household-level dynamics of food waste production and related beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours in Guelph, Ontario

It has been estimated that Canadians waste

Increasing Crop Diversity Mitigates Weather Variations and Improves Yield Stability

27 billion of food annually, and that half of that waste occurs at the household level (Gooch et al., 2010). There are social, environmental, and economic implications for this scale of food waste, and source separation of organic waste is an increasingly common municipal intervention. There is relatively little research that assesses the dynamics of household food waste (particularly in Canada). The purpose of this study is to combine observations of organic, recyclable, and garbage waste production rates to survey results of food waste-related beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours at the household level in the mid-sized municipality of Guelph, Ontario. Waste weights and surveys were obtained from 68 households in the summer of 2013. The results of this study indicate multiple relationships between food waste production and household shopping practices, food preparation behaviours, household waste management practices, and food-related attitudes, beliefs, and lifestyles. Notably, we observed that food awareness, waste awareness, family lifestyles, and convenience lifestyles were related to food waste production. We conclude that it is important to understand the diversity of factors that can influence food wasting behaviours at the household level in order to design waste management systems and policies to reduce food waste.

Nitrogen transfer from nodulating soybean to maize or to nonnodulating soybean in intercrops: the 15N dilution method

Cropping sequence diversification provides a systems approach to reduce yield variations and improve resilience to multiple environmental stresses. Yield advantages of more diverse crop rotations and their synergistic effects with reduced tillage are well documented, but few studies have quantified the impact of these management practices on yields and their stability when soil moisture is limiting or in excess. Using yield and weather data obtained from a 31-year long term rotation and tillage trial in Ontario, we tested whether crop rotation diversity is associated with greater yield stability when abnormal weather conditions occur. We used parametric and non-parametric approaches to quantify the impact of rotation diversity (monocrop, 2-crops, 3-crops without or with one or two legume cover crops) and tillage (conventional or reduced tillage) on yield probabilities and the benefits of crop diversity under different soil moisture and temperature scenarios. Although the magnitude of rotation benefits varied with crops, weather patterns and tillage, yield stability significantly increased when corn and soybean were integrated into more diverse rotations. Introducing small grains into short corn-soybean rotation was enough to provide substantial benefits on long-term soybean yields and their stability while the effects on corn were mostly associated with the temporal niche provided by small grains for underseeded red clover or alfalfa. Crop diversification strategies increased the probability of harnessing favorable growing conditions while decreasing the risk of crop failure. In hot and dry years, diversification of corn-soybean rotations and reduced tillage increased yield by 7% and 22% for corn and soybean respectively. Given the additional advantages associated with cropping system diversification, such a strategy provides a more comprehensive approach to lowering yield variability and improving the resilience of cropping systems to multiple environmental stresses. This could help to sustain future yield levels in challenging production environments.

Intercropping corn and soybean for silage in a cool-temperature region: Yield, protein and economic effects

In 1985, 1986 and 1988, maize (Zea mays L.) was monocropped or intercropped with nodulating or nonnodulating soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.). In addition, nodulating soybean and nonnodulating soybean were each monocropped and grown as a mixture. In 1985 and 1986, treatments were grown at 0 and 60 kg N ha−1 and in 1988, the treatments were grown without N fertilizer, on N-depeted soil and on non-N-depleted soil. 15N enriched N was applied to soil in all the aforementioned treatments to test for N transfer from nodulating soybean to non-N2-fixing crops by the 15N dilution method.The 15N dilution method did not show the occurrence of N transfer in 1985 and 1986, but the N sparing effect was evident from the total N uptake of nonnodulating soybean, dwarf maize and tall maize, in 1986. In 1988, maize and nonnodulating soybean seed yields and seed N yields were higher on non-N-depleted soil than on N-depleted soil. On N-depleted soil, the 15N dilution method indicated N transfer from nodulating soybean to maize and to nonndulating soybean. At a population ratio of 67% nodulating soybean to 33% nonnodulating soybean, N transfer was also seen on non-N-depleted soil in 1988.

Improving Energy Efficiency and GHG Mitigation Potentials in Canadian Organic Farming Systems

Abstract Corn ( Zea mays L.) and soybean ( Glycine max [L.] Merr.) were intercropped for silage in 1985 and 1986 at the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada to evaluate silage yield, protein and economic effects. In both years, a complete 2 × 2 ×3 factorial was analysed for two corn hybrids (dwarf and tall), two corn cropping systems (monocropped and intercropped), and three N fertilizer levels (0, 60 and 120 kg N ha −1 ). In addition to the complete factorial treatments, monocropped soybeans with 0 kg N ha −1 and an intercrop treatment of dwarf and tall corn at 120 kg N ha −1 were grown. In 1986, four population-density levels of the intercropped tall corn and soybean, at 60 kg N ha −1 , were also compared. Total yields averaged over corn hybrids and cropping systems had a quadratic response, increasing from 0 to 60 kg N ha −1 and then decreasing slightly between 60 and 120 kg N ha −1 , in both years. Monocrops of corn yielded significantly more in both years than intercrops, except tall-corn intercrops in 1986 grown at monocropped-corn population densities. Both corn and soybean of the dwarf-corn intercrops in the dry year of 1985 had a consistent trend of lower dry-matter and protein yields than in tall-corn intercrops at the same levels of N. These differences did not consistently favour either corn hybrid in 1986. The concentration of crude protein was significantly higher in intercropped than monocropped silage in both years. In 1986, this was also true for the protein yield ha −1 . Increasing N application resulted in higher total silage protein concentrations in both years. The total silage protein concentration was, on average, 1.53 and 2.15 percentage points higher in intercrops than in the corresponding monocropped corn hybrid at the same level of N in 1985 and 1986, respectively. The total silage protein concentrations in both years and the protein yield in 1986 were greater for tall corn than for dwarf corn. All treatments at 0 kg N ha −1 , the dwarf-corn intercrops in 1985 and monocropped dwarf corn at 120 kg N ha −1 in both years, were less cost-effective than the standard, monocropped tall corn at 120 kg N ha −1 . In 1985, the tall corn intercrop at 60 kg N ha −1 had a

Economic and social impacts of organic production systems

135 ha −1 cost-effective advantage over the standard treatment. In 1986, this intercrop had a

Competition between corn and a living mulch

132 ha −1 advantage, which was improved to

Prevalence and distribution of gastrointestinal nematodes on 32 organic and conventional commercial sheep farms in Ontario and Quebec, Canada (2006-2008).

261 ha −1 when the corn population was maintained at monocrop levels and the population of soybeans was reduced by 50%. Land equivalent ratios ( lers ) based on dry-matter weights ranged from 0.97 to 1.11 in dwarf-corn intercrops and from 1.16 to 1.23 in tall-corn intercrops in 1985. The ler range in 1986 was from 1.11 to 1.12 in dwarf-corn intercrops, and from 1.04 to 1.23 in tall-corn intercrops.

Organic amendment effects on tuber yield, plant N uptake and soil mineral N under organic potato production

Organic farming systems demonstrate greater energy efficiency and reduced green house gas (GHG) emissions per land unit and unit of production compared with conventional operations, usually attributable to the absence of synthetic fertilizers, particularly nitrogen, and synthetic pesticides. However, results suggest that the efficiency of organic systems can improve with research on optimizing yields/inputs, as comparisons of efficiency/output are not as robustly positive as those of efficiency/area. Organic systems also appear to have greater carbon sequestration potential. Organic systems can be significantly improved, pursuing both farm-level and sector-wide strategies. The specific conditions of organic farming, relative to conventional production, limit the number of currently promoted strategies that can fit into organic operations. Priority areas for future research to improve energy efficiency and GHG mitigation potential of organic systems are identified, including how energy crop production might be adapted to organic systems.