Rabea Schweiger

Interactions between the jasmonic and salicylic acid pathway modulate the plant metabolome and affect herbivores of different feeding types

The phytohormones jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) mediate induced plant defences and the corresponding pathways interact in a complex manner as has been shown on the transcript and proteine level. Downstream, metabolic changes are important for plant-herbivore interactions. This study investigated metabolic changes in leaf tissue and phloem exudates of Plantago lanceolata after single and combined JA and SA applications as well as consequences on chewing-biting (Heliothis virescens) and piercing-sucking (Myzus persicae) herbivores. Targeted metabolite profiling and untargeted metabolic fingerprinting uncovered different categories of plant metabolites, which were influenced in a specific manner, indicating points of divergence, convergence, positive crosstalk and pronounced mutual antagonism between the signaling pathways. Phytohormone-specific decreases of primary metabolite pool sizes in the phloem exudates may indicate shifts in sink-source relations, resource allocation, nutrient uptake or photosynthesis. Survival of both herbivore species was significantly reduced by JA and SA treatments. However, the combined application of JA and SA attenuated the negative effects at least against H. virescens suggesting that mutual antagonism between the JA and SA pathway may be responsible. Pathway interactions provide a great regulatory potential for the plant that allows triggering of appropriate defences when attacked by different antagonist species.

Leaf metabolome in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis.

Most land plants are associated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which colonise the plant roots and facilitate the uptake of water and nutrients. In turn, the fungi receive plant carbohydrates. Although the fungus is morphologically restricted to the roots, the exchange of substances and involvement of phytohormone signalling has consequences on systemic shoot tissues. Recent research provides growing insight in the species-specificity of leaf metabolic responses to arbuscular mycorrhiza, revealing that various metabolites can be affected. Such mycorrhiza-mediated changes in the chemical composition of leaf tissues can confer phytoprotection against different abiotic stresses. Moreover, they have consequences on numerous biotic interactions. In this review we highlight such findings and point out fields where more research is required.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza-induced shifts in foliar metabolism and photosynthesis mirror the developmental stage of the symbiosis and are only partly driven by improved phosphate uptake.

In arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) plants, the plant delivers photoassimilates to the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), whereas the mycosymbiont contributes, in addition to other beneficial effects, to phosphate (PO4(3-)) uptake from the soil. Thereby, the additional fungal carbon (C) sink strength in roots and improved plant PO4(3-) nutrition may influence aboveground traits. We investigated how the foliar metabolome of Plantago major is affected along with the development of root symbiosis, whether the photosynthetic performance is affected by AM, and whether these effects are mediated by improved PO4(3-) nutrition. Therefore, we studied PO4(3-)-limited and PO4(3-)-supplemented controls in comparison with mycorrhizal plants at 20, 30, and 62 days postinoculation with the AMF Rhizophagus irregularis. Foliar metabolome modifications were determined by the developmental stage of symbiosis, with changes becoming more pronounced over time. In a well-established stage of mature mutualism, about 60% of the metabolic changes and an increase in foliar CO2 assimilation were unrelated to the significantly increased foliar phosphorus (P) content. We propose a framework relating the time-dependent metabolic changes to the shifts in C costs and P benefits for the plant. Besides P-mediated effects, the strong fungal C sink activity may drive the changes in the leaf traits.

Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza on Plant Chemistry and the Development and Behavior of a Generalist Herbivore

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) formed between plants and AM fungi (AMF) can alter host plant quality and thus influence plant-herbivore interactions. While AM is known to affect the development of generalist chewing-biting herbivores, AM-mediated impacts on insect behavior have been neglected until now. In this study, the effects of Rhizophagus irregularis, a generalist AMF, on phenotypic and leaf metabolic traits of Plantago major plants were investigated. Further, the influence of AM-mediated host plant modifications on the development and on seven behavioral traits of larvae of the generalist Mamestra brassicae were recorded. Tests were carried out in the third (L3) and fourth (L4) larval instar, respectively. While shoot water content, specific leaf area, and foliar concentrations of the secondary metabolite aucubin were higher in AM-treated compared to non-mycorrhized (NM) plants, lower concentrations of the primary metabolites citric acid and isocitric acid were found in leaves of AM plants. Larvae reared on AM plants gained a higher body mass and tended to develop faster than individuals reared on NM plants. However, plant treatment had no significant effect on any of the behavioral traits. Instead, differences between larvae of different ages were detected in several behavioral features, with L4 being less active and less bold than L3 larvae. The results demonstrate that AM-induced modifications of host plant quality influence larval development, whereas the behavioral phenotype seems to be more fixed at least under the tested conditions.

Current Challenges in Plant Eco-Metabolomics

The relatively new research discipline of Eco-Metabolomics is the application of metabolomics techniques to ecology with the aim to characterise biochemical interactions of organisms across different spatial and temporal scales. Metabolomics is an untargeted biochemical approach to measure many thousands of metabolites in different species, including plants and animals. Changes in metabolite concentrations can provide mechanistic evidence for biochemical processes that are relevant at ecological scales. These include physiological, phenotypic and morphological responses of plants and communities to environmental changes and also interactions with other organisms. Traditionally, research in biochemistry and ecology comes from two different directions and is performed at distinct spatiotemporal scales. Biochemical studies most often focus on intrinsic processes in individuals at physiological and cellular scales. Generally, they take a bottom-up approach scaling up cellular processes from spatiotemporally fine to coarser scales. Ecological studies usually focus on extrinsic processes acting upon organisms at population and community scales and typically study top-down and bottom-up processes in combination. Eco-Metabolomics is a transdisciplinary research discipline that links biochemistry and ecology and connects the distinct spatiotemporal scales. In this review, we focus on approaches to study chemical and biochemical interactions of plants at various ecological levels, mainly plant–organismal interactions, and discuss related examples from other domains. We present recent developments and highlight advancements in Eco-Metabolomics over the last decade from various angles. We further address the five key challenges: (1) complex experimental designs and large variation of metabolite profiles; (2) feature extraction; (3) metabolite identification; (4) statistical analyses; and (5) bioinformatics software tools and workflows. The presented solutions to these challenges will advance connecting the distinct spatiotemporal scales and bridging biochemistry and ecology.

Metabolic Changes during Storage of Brassica napus Seeds under Moist Conditions and the Consequences for the Sensory Quality of the Resulting Virgin Oil

Virgin rapeseed (Brassica napus) oil is a valuable niche product, if delivered with a high quality. In this study, the effects of moist storage of B. napus seeds for 1 to 4 days on the seed metabolome and the chemo-sensory properties of the produced oils were determined. The concentrations of several primary metabolites, including monosaccharides and amino acids, rapidly increased in the seeds, probably indicating the breakdown of storage compounds to support seed germination. Seed concentrations of indole glucosinolates increased with a slight time offset suggesting that amino acids may be used to modify secondary metabolism. The volatile profiles of the oils were pronouncedly influenced by moist seed storage, with the sensory quality of the oils decreasing. This study provides a direct time-resolved link between seed metabolism under moist conditions and the quality of the resulting oils, thereby emphasizing the crucial role of dry seed storage in ensuring high oil quality.