Rachel G. Bratt

Housing and Family Well-being

Housing encompasses a bundle of characteristics that are integral to family well-being. This literature review demonstrates that, on a physical level, housing must be decent and safe, as well as present in a familys life. Housing is also critical because of the way in which it relates to its occupants, providing sufficient space so that the family is not overcrowded; being affordable; providing opportunities to create a positive sense of self and empowerment; and providing stability and security. The paper concludes with a brief proposal that would involve a significantly increased commitment to housing based on all recipients of housing subsidies entering into a reciprocal relationship with the government.

Networks and Nonprofits: Opportunities and Challenges in an Era of Federal Devolution

Abstract Community development corporations and other nonprofit organizations are increasingly responsible for producing and managing low‐income housing in urban America. This article examines the network of governmental, philanthropic, educational, and other institutions that channel financial, technical, and political support to nonprofit housing sponsors. We analyze the relationships among these institutions and propose an explanation for their success. We then consider challenges the network must confront if the reinvention of federal housing policy is to succeed. Block grants and rental vouchers, the dominant emphases of federal policy, present opportunities and constraints for nonprofit housing groups and their institutional networks. While states and municipalities are likely to continue to use block grants for nonprofit housing, the viability of this housing will be severely tested as project‐based operating subsidies are replaced by tenant‐based vouchers. We recommend ways that the federal, state...

The Status of Nonprofit-Owned Affordable Housing: Short-Term Successes and Long-Term Challenges

Abstract Having established themselves as housing developers, nonprofit organizations now face the critical challenge of preserving the housing inventory they have produced. Good housing management is essential to this task. This paper analyzes a national study of nonprofit housing management. From several indicators of management performance and financial viability, the picture that emerges is that, for the most part, the developments are functioning well and providing a decent level of affordable housing. Beyond this initial “snapshot” of relative well-being, however, loom significant problems, which if left unaddressed will severely threaten the stock of affordable housing studied here. We have found indicators that prompt concern and that warrant attention from public, private, and nonprofit funders, and from government entities and intermediaries.

The Quadruple Bottom Line and Nonprofit Housing Organizations in the United States

The work of US nonprofit housing organizations can be viewed as involving a commitment to meet the Quadruple Bottom Line—the financial demands of developing and maintaining affordable housing while serving resident groups and neighborhoods, in an environmentally responsible manner. Nonprofit organizations may be categorized into three major groups, based on their primary areas of concern—‘people’, ‘places’ and ‘projects’. This article outlines the components and approximate size of the US social housing sector and presents examples of how housing nonprofits have, both historically and currently, evolved to incorporate multiple roles. With declines in federal funding for affordable housing, nonprofits have become increasingly hybrid in their operations. Examples are given regarding how nonprofits attempt to mediate the private market; how the various components of the Quadruple Bottom Line often compete with one another; and how hybridity of the nonprofit social housing sector creates additional challenges for these groups. The final section presents policy directions for supporting nonprofits.

Nonprofit and for‐profit developers of subsidized rental housing: Comparative attributes and collaborative opportunities

Abstract This article presents background information on the growth, productivity, and unique focus of nonprofit housing producers and discusses the various government and private initiatives that support this sector. The article also explores the strengths and weaknesses of for‐profit and nonprofit organizations in developing and owning subsidized rental housing and questions the cost‐effectiveness of pursuing one strategy or the other and the long‐term viability of projects developed by each type of sponsor. Answers, however, are far from conclusive. Effective housing production and long‐term ownership of subsidized housing require the developer to address at least 12 broad areas of concern. In some, nonprofits appear to have the advantage, while in others, for‐profit developers generally have the edge. Nonprofits and for‐profits can join together in partnership arrangements, and some of the key requirements for such efforts are discussed. Recommendations for policy changes to enhance the role of nonprofit organizations are offered.

Failures, downsizings, and mergers among community development corporations

Abstract Over the past 30 years, community development corporations (CDCs) have become increasingly important actors in low‐ and moderate‐income communities. One prominent view of CDCs is that they have experienced uninterrupted growth since the 1970s. Despite their growth and productivity, however, many are facing serious challenges to their continued viability. When confronted by such challenges, CDCs are likely to respond in one of three ways: go out of business, downsize, or merge with one or more other groups. The major goal of this research was to assess the causes of these failures, downsizings, and mergers. First, we found that these changes do not appear to be isolated instances; rather, they are prevalent across the country. Second, we identified a number of contextual and organizational factors leading to CDC failures, downsizings, and mergers. Finally we suggest a series of actions CDCs, support communities, and policy makers can take in response.

Organizational changes among CDCs: Assessing the impacts and navigating the challenges

ABSTRACT: Since the 1970s, community development corporations (CDCs) have gained skills, visibility, and prominence in their efforts to rebuild very low-income distressed communities. While the net number of organizations has increased, there has been a certain degree of flux, with some organizations going out of business, while new ones have been created. Although many CDCs are financially sound, some are facing significant financial problems that threaten their viability. When confronted by serious challenges, CDCs may be forced to go out of business, downsize, or merge with one or more other groups. This article focuses on how CDC failures, downsizings, and mergers affect individuals and communities served; how the work of CDCs can be supported by their local community; and how CDCs and their support community can anticipate and prepare for the possibility that some organizations in their area may need to dramatically change their operations. The final section explores how, if change is inevitable or desirable, CDCs can best navigate and steer the process.

CHALLENGES FOR NONPROFIT HOUSING ORGANIZATIONS CREATED BY THE PRIVATE HOUSING MARKET

ABSTRACT: Community development corporations (CDCs) and other large nonprofit housing organizations are major producers of housing for low-income households. One of the least recognized and examined set of challenges facing these groups relates to how the workings of the private housing market—both weak and strong market conditions—impact their ability to carry out their mission. After presenting examples of how housing market conditions create challenges for nonprofits, the article explores how organizational strategic planning can help the nonprofit to more explicitly focus on housing market dynamics and plan its activities taking into account these concerns. An analysis of the two major training programs for nonprofit housing organizations that were available during 2007 revealed that out of the 216 different courses offered by NeighborWorks America and the Local Initiatives Support Corporation, only 8% appear to relate closely to housing market dynamics and land-use issues and 3% relate to strategic planning. Initiatives that would assist nonprofits to both recognize the importance of the private housing market and to assist them in developing strategies for confronting market-based challenges are presented.

Federal Housing Policy and HUD: Past Problems and Future Prospects of a Beleaguered Bureaucracy.

The authors first review the origins and birth of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Second, they analyze four recurrent types of problems: (1) lack of consistent presidential and congressional support for low-income housing and urban aid, (2) primary reliance upon the private sector to meet housing needs, (3) HUDs structure, internal conflicts, and shortcomings, and (4) the complexity of housing and urban problems. Third, they recommend three major changes: (1) splitting HUD into two agencies to deal separately with housing and urban development, (2) merging all federal housing programs into the new housing agency, and (3) creating a national housing bank. Finally, they advocate the adoption of progressive housing policies to better benefit poorer housing consumers.

Addressing Restrictive Zoning for Affordable Housing: Experiences in Four States

Affordable housing development in suburban locales is often constrained by zoning and other municipal land-use restrictions. This article explores experiences in four states that have been recognized for exemplary interventions that address “exclusionary zoning.” Using quantitative and qualitative methods, the article examines overall production levels resulting from the specific program, the extent to which such production is occurring in locales with more White residents and more higher-income residents, and the levels of compliance with state-specified goals, where such goals exist. When possible, cross-state comparisons are provided. Although there are clear signs of progress, with municipalities increasing their affordable housing stocks and with some of this production occurring in locales that probably would not have developed such housing without such state (or county) intervention, the pace has been slow. A number of recommendations are offered for these and other states contemplating strategies to address exclusionary land-use practices.