Radim Beranek

Enhancement and limits of the photoelectrochemical response from anodic TiO2 nanotubes

TiO2 nanotube layers were grown on titanium by a self-organized anodic oxidation. The layers consist of arrays of individual tubes with a length of ∼2μm, a diameter of ∼100nm, and a wall thickness of ∼10nm. These layers can be annealed to an anatase structure which strongly increases the photocurrent efficiency. Moreover, the nanotube layers can—under certain conditions—exhibit a drastically enhanced photocurrent compared to compact anatase layers. These strong changes in the photoresponse are attributed to the characteristics of the space charge layer within the tube wall.

(Photo)electrochemical Methods for the Determination of the Band Edge Positions of TiO2-Based Nanomaterials

TiO2-based nanomaterials play currently a major role in the development of novel photochemical systems and devices. One of the key parameters determining the photoactivity of TiO2-based materials is the position of the band edges. Although its knowledge is an important prerequisite for understanding and optimizing the performance of photochemical systems, it has been often rather neglected in recent research, particularly in the field of heterogeneous photocatalysis. This paper provides a concise account of main methods for the determination of the position of the band edges, particularly those suitable for measurements on nanostructured materials. In the first part, a survey of key photophysical and photochemical concepts necessary for understanding the energetics at the semiconductor/solution interface is provided. This is followed by a detailed discussion of several electrochemical, photoelectrochemical, and spectroelectrochemical methods that can be applied for the determination of band edge positions in compact and nanocrystalline thin films, as well as in nanocrystalline powders.

Visible-light photocurrent response of TiO2–polyheptazine hybrids: evidence for interfacial charge-transfer absorption

We investigated photoelectrodes based on TiO(2)-polyheptazine hybrid materials. Since both TiO(2) and polyheptazine are extremely chemically stable, these materials are highly promising candidates for fabrication of photoanodes for water photooxidation. The properties of the hybrids were experimentally determined by a careful analysis of optical absorption spectra, luminescence properties and photoelectrochemical measurements, and corroborated by quantum chemical calculations. We provide for the first time clear experimental evidence for the formation of an interfacial charge-transfer complex between polyheptazine (donor) and TiO(2) (acceptor), which is responsible for a significant red shift of absorption and photocurrent response of the hybrid as compared to both of the single components. The direct optical charge transfer from the HOMO of polyheptazine to the conduction band edge of TiO(2) gives rise to an absorption band centered at 2.3 eV (540 nm). The estimated potential of photogenerated holes (+1.7 V vs. NHE, pH 7) allows for photooxidation of water (+0.82 V vs. NHE, pH 7) as evidenced by visible light-driven (λ > 420 nm) evolution of dioxygen on hybrid electrodes modified with IrO(2) nanoparticles as a co-catalyst. The quantum-chemical simulations demonstrate that the TiO(2)-polyheptazine interface is a complex and flexible system energetically favorable for proton-transfer processes required for water oxidation. Apart from water splitting, this type of hybrid materials may also find further applications in a broader research area of solar energy conversion and photo-responsive devices.

Highly efficient rutile TiO2 photocatalysts with single Cu(II) and Fe(III) surface catalytic sites

Highly active photocatalysts were obtained by impregnation of nanocrystalline rutile TiO2 powders with small amounts of Cu(II) and Fe(III) ions, resulting in the enhancement of initial rates of photocatalytic degradation of 4-chlorophenol in water by factors of 7 and 4, compared to pristine rutile, respectively. Detailed structural analysis by EPR and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (EXAFS) revealed that Cu(II) and Fe(III) are present as single species on the rutile surface. The mechanism of the photoactivity enhancement was elucidated by a combination of DFT calculations and detailed experimental mechanistic studies including photoluminescence measurements, photocatalytic experiments using scavengers, OH radical detection, and photopotential transient measurements. The results demonstrate that the single Cu(II) and Fe(III) ions act as effective cocatalytic sites, enhancing the charge separation, catalyzing “dark” redox reactions at the interface, thus improving the normally very low quantum yields of UV light-activated TiO2 photocatalysts. The exact mechanism of the photoactivity enhancement differs depending on the nature of the cocatalyst. Cu(II)-decorated samples exhibit fast transfer of photogenerated electrons to Cu(II/I) sites, followed by enhanced catalysis of dioxygen reduction, resulting in improved charge separation and higher photocatalytic degradation rates. At Fe(III)-modified rutile the rate of dioxygen reduction is not improved and the photocatalytic enhancement is attributed to higher production of highly oxidizing hydroxyl radicals produced by alternative oxygen reduction pathways opened by the presence of catalytic Fe(III/II) sites. Importantly, it was demonstrated that excessive heat treatment (at 450 °C) of photocatalysts leads to loss of activity due to migration of Cu(II) and Fe(III) ions from TiO2 surface to the bulk, accompanied by formation of oxygen vacancies. The demonstrated variety of mechanisms of photoactivity enhancement at single site catalyst-modified photocatalysts holds promise for developing further tailored photocatalysts for various applications.

Visible‐Light Photooxidation of Water to Oxygen at Hybrid TiO2–Polyheptazine Photoanodes with Photodeposited Co‐Pi (CoOx) Cocatalyst

A cobalt oxide-based oxygen-evolving cocatalyst (Co-Pi) is photodeposited by visible-light irradiation onto nanocrystalline TiO(2)-polyheptazine (TiO(2)-PH) hybrid photoelectrodes in a phosphate buffer. The Co-Pi cocatalyst couples effectively to photoholes generated in the surface polyheptazine layer of the TiO(2)-PH photoanode, as evidenced by complete photooxidation of water to oxygen under visible-light (λ>420 nm) irradiation at moderate bias potentials. In addition, the presence of the cocatalyst also reduces significantly the recombination of photogenerated charges, particularly at low bias potentials, which is ascribed to better photooxidation kinetics resulting in lower accumulation of holes. This suggests that further improvements of photoconversion efficiency can be achieved if more effective catalytic sites for water oxidation are introduced to the surface structure of the hybrid photoanodes.

Fast and robust infiltration of functional material inside titania nanotube layers: case study of a chalcogenide glass sensitizer

Fast and robust infiltration of anodic TiO2 nanotube layers with a model chalcogenide As3S7 glass via spin-coating is reported for the first time. Effective sensitization leads to a significant visible light photocurrent response. This easy and cheap infiltration method can be extended for deposition of other absorbers into nanotubular layers.

TiO2-Polyheptazine Hybrid Photoelectrodes: Dynamics of Photogenerated Holes

The dynamics of visible-light photogenerated holes in nanocrystalline photoelectrodes based on TiO2-polyheptazine (TiO2-PH) was investigated by polychromatic and wavelengthresolved photocurrent measurements performed at different potentials, different pH, and in the presence of various hole scavengers. The evaluation of the hole reactivity was addressed by direct comparison to photoelectrodes based on pristine TiO2. In aqueous electrolytes the TiO2-PH photoelectrodes exhibit IPCE values of ~ 2% at 450 nm. As compared to TiO2, the visible-light generated holes in TiO2-PH are located in the surface polyheptazine layer and possess a lower oxidation potential. Due to their slow water oxidation kinetics, they accumulate under irradiation at the surface. This leads to increased recombination unless sufficiently high positive bias is applied or a more readily oxidizable hole scavenger is present. The results suggest that highly efficient water splitting on TiO2-PH hybrid photoelectrodes can only be achieved after introducing additional catalytic sites into the polyheptazine component.

Corrigendum to “(Photo)electrochemical Methods for the Determination of the Band Edge Positions of TiO2-Based Nanomaterials”

The paper titled “(Photo)electrochemical Methods for the Determination of the Band Edge Positions of TiO 2 -Based Nanomaterials” [1] contains an error in Figure 3(b) where the work function of the semiconductor, ΦS, should be depicted as the energy difference between the semiconductor Fermi level and the local vacuum level just outside the semiconductor surface. The corrected Figure 3 is shown as follows.

Enabling visible-light water photooxidation by coordinative incorporation of Co(II/III) cocatalytic sites into organic-inorganic hybrids: quantum chemical modeling and photoelectrochemical performance

Coordinative incorporation of Co(II/III) cocatalytic sites into organic–inorganic hybrids of TiO2 and “polyheptazine” (PH, poly(aminoimino)heptazine, melon, or “graphitic carbon nitride”) has been investigated both by quantum chemical calculations and experimental techniques. Specifically, density-functional theory (DFT) calculations (PBE/def2-TZVPP) suggest that Co(II/III) and Zn(II) ions adsorb in nanocavities at the surface of the hybrid PH–TiO2 cluster, a prediction which can be further confirmed experimentally by 15N nuclear magnetic resonance in the case of the Zn complex. The absorption spectra of the complexes were characterized by time-dependent DFT calculations, suggesting a change of color upon Co ion binding which can in fact be observed with the naked eye. Hybrid TiO2–PH photoelectrodes were impregnated with Co(II) ions from aqueous cobalt nitrate solutions. Optical absorption data suggest that Co(II) ions are predominantly present as single ions coordinated within the nitrogen cavities of TiO2–PH, and any undesired blocking of light absorption is negligible. The cobalt-induced cocatalytic sites can efficiently couple to the holes photogenerated by visible light in TiO2–PH, leading to complete oxidation of water to dioxygen. Our results indicate that coordinative incorporation of metal ions into well-designed surface sites in the light absorber is sufficient to drive complex multielectron transformations in artificial photosynthetic systems.

CVD-grown copper tungstate thin films for solar water splitting

In this paper, a direct chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach is applied for the first time to synthesize high quality copper oxide (CuO), copper tungstate (CuWO4) and tungsten oxide (WO3) on F:SnO2 (FTO) substrates for photocatalytic water splitting. Variation of process parameters enables us to tune the stoichiometry of the deposits to obtain stoichiometric, W-rich, and Cu-rich deposits. It is found that the presence of Cu in WO3 thin films reduces the bandgap and enhances the absorption properties of the material in the visible range. The photoelectrocatalytic performance of stoichiometric CuWO4 was found to be superior to that of WO3 oxide under frontside illumination when thin films were used. However, detailed photoelectrochemical investigations of both thin and thicker CuWO4 films reveal that the incorporation of copper also decreases the mobility of both electrons and holes, the latter being the performance-limiting factor. These results are in line with our first-principles calculations of the electronic structure of CuWO4. A charge carrier mobility and diffusion length of ∼6× 10−3 cm2 V−1 s−1 and 30 nm were determined by time-resolved microwave conductivity measurements, values comparable to those of undoped bismuth vanadate (BiVO4). Our findings establish new insights into the advantages and limits of CuWO4-based photoanodes, and suggest a possibility of using very thin CuWO4 films on top of highly absorbing semiconductors with optimal electronic properties.