Rafal Pacholczyk

T Cells Can Be Activated by Peptides That Are Unrelated in Sequence to Their Selecting Peptide

We tested the ability of CD4+ T cells, selected in the thymus by reaction with class II protein bound to a single peptide, to react with the same class II protein bound to other peptides. The T cells reacted with all peptides tested, including one that was quite unlike the selecting peptide in T cell receptor binding residues. The receptors on class II/peptide-reactive T cells from class II/single peptide mice were similar but not identical to some of those from normal animals. Thus, class II bound to a single peptide selects a subset of T cells that is related to that selected by class II bound to many peptides.

Peptide specificity of thymic selection of CD4+CD25+ T cells

The CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells can be found in the thymus, but their need to undergo positive and negative selection has been questioned. Instead, it has been hypothesized that CD4+CD25+ cells mature following TCR binding to MHC backbone, to low abundant MHC/peptide complexes, or to class II MHC loaded with peripheral autoantigens. In all these circumstances, processes that are distinct from positive and negative selection would govern the provenance of CD4+CD25+ cells in the thymus. By comparing the development of CD4+CD25− and CD4+CD25+ cells in mice expressing class II MHC molecules bound with one or many peptide(s), we show that the CD4+CD25+ cells appear during natural selection of CD4+ T cells. The proportion of CD4+CD25+ cells in the population of CD4+ thymocytes remains constant, and their total number reflects the complexity of selecting class II MHC/peptide complexes. Hence, thymic development of CD4+CD25+ cells does not exclusively depend on the low-density, high-affinity MHC/peptide complexes or thymic presentation of peripheral self-Ags, but, rather, these cells are selected as a portion of the natural repertoire of CD4+ T cells. Furthermore, while resistant to deletion mediated by endogenous superantigen(s), these cells were negatively selected on class II MHC/peptide complexes. We postulate that while the CD4+CD25+ thymocytes are first detectable in the thymic medulla, their functional commitment occurs in the thymic cortex.

Tie2cre-induced inactivation of the miRNA-processing enzyme Dicer disrupts invariant NKT cell development

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of evolutionarily conserved small noncoding RNAs that are increasingly being recognized as important regulators of gene expression. The ribonuclease III enzyme Dicer is essential for the processing of miRNAs. CD1d-restricted invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are potent regulators of diverse immune responses. The role of Dicer-generated miRNAs in the development and function of immune regulatory iNKT cells is unknown. Here, we generated a mouse strain with a tissue-specific disruption of Dicer, and showed that lack of miRNAs after the deletion of Dicer by Tie2-Cre (expressed in hematopoietic cells and endothelial cells) interrupted the development and maturation of iNKT cells in the thymus and significantly decreased the number of iNKT cells in different immune organs. Thymic and peripheral iNKT cell compartments were changed in miRNA-deficient mice, with a significantly increased frequency of CD4+CD8+ iNKT cells in the thymus and a significantly decreased frequency of CD4+ iNKT cells in the spleen. MiRNA-deficient iNKT cells display profound defects in α-GalCer-induced activation and cytokine production. Bone marrow (BM) from miRNA-deficient mice poorly reconstituted iNKT cells compared to BM from WT mice. Also, using a thymic iNKT cell transfer model, we found that iNKT cell homeostasis was impaired in miRNA-deficient recipient mice. Our data indicate that miRNAs expressed in hematopoietic cells and endothelial cells are potent regulators of iNKT cell development, function, and homeostasis.

The T-cell receptor repertoire of regulatory T cells

The CD4+ CD25+ regulatory population of T cells (Treg cells), which expresses the forkhead family transcription factor (Foxp3), is the key component of the peripheral tolerance mechanism that protects us from a variety of autoimmune diseases. Experimental evidence shows that Treg cells recognize a wide range of antigenic specificities with increased reactivity to self antigens, although the affinity of these interactions remains to be further defined. The Treg repertoire is highly diverse with a distinct set of T‐cell receptors (TCRs), and yet is overlapping to some extent with the repertoire of conventional T cells (Tconv cells). The majority of Treg cells are generated in the thymus. However, the role of the TCR specificity in directing thymic precursors to become Treg or Tconv cells remains unclear. On the one hand, the higher self reactivity of Treg cells and utilization of different TCRs in Treg and Tconv repertoires suggest that in TCR interactions an initial decision is made about the ‘suitability’ of a developing thymocyte to become a Treg cell. On the other hand, as Treg cells can recognize a wide range of foreign antigens, have a diverse TCR repertoire, and show some degree of overlap with Tconv cells, the signals through the TCR may be complementary to the TCR‐independent process that generates precursors of Treg cells. In this review, we discuss how different features of the Treg repertoire influence our understanding of Treg specificities and the role of self reactivity in the generation of this population.

Foxp3-Deficient Regulatory T Cells Do Not Revert into Conventional Effector CD4+ T Cells but Constitute a Unique Cell Subset

Homeostasis in the immune system is maintained by specialized regulatory CD4+ T cells (Treg) expressing transcription factor Foxp3. According to the current paradigm, high-affinity interactions between TCRs and class II MHC-peptide complexes in thymus “instruct” developing thymocytes to up-regulate Foxp3 and become Treg cells. However, the loss or down-regulation of Foxp3 does not disrupt the development of Treg cells but abrogates their suppressor function. In this study, we show that Foxp3-deficient Treg cells in scurfy mice harboring a null mutation of the Foxp3 gene retained cellular features of Treg cells including in vitro anergy, impaired production of inflammatory cytokines, and dependence on exogenous IL-2 for proliferation and homeostatic expansion. Foxp3-deficient Treg cells expressed a low level of activation markers, did not expand relative to other CD4+ T cells, and produced IL-4 and immunomodulatory cytokines IL-10 and TGF-β when stimulated. Global gene expression profiling revealed significant similarities between Treg cells expressing and lacking Foxp3. These results argue that Foxp3 deficiency alone does not convert Treg cells into conventional effector CD4+ T cells but rather these cells constitute a distinct cell subset with unique features.

αβTCRs Differ in the Degree of Their Specificity for the Positively Selecting MHC/Peptide Ligand

We have tested the peptide specificity of positive selection using three transgenic αβTCRs, originally selected on class II MHC (Ab) covalently bound with one peptide Eα (52–68) (Ep). The transgenic TCR specific for the cytochrome c-derived (43–58) peptide was selected on Ab bound with different arrays of endogenous peptides or the analogue of Ep covalently bound to Ab, but not on the original AbEp complex. In contrast, transgenic TCRs specific for two different analogues of the Ep peptide and Ab did not mature as CD4+ T cells in various thymic environments, including the AbEpIi− mice. These results show that TCRs can be promiscuous or specific for the selecting MHC/peptide complex, and suggest that in mice described in this study transgenic expression of the TCR changes the original requirements for the positively selecting MHC/peptide complex. Future studies will determine whether the latter phenomenon is general or specific for this system.

Presentation of antagonist peptides to naive CD4+ T cells abrogates spatial reorganization of class II MHC peptide complexes on the surface of dendritic cells

By using dendritic cells (DCs) transduced with retroviruses encoding covalent Abβ/peptide fusion proteins tagged with fluorescent proteins, we followed the relocation of class II MHC molecules loaded with agonist or null peptides during the onset of activation of naive and effector CD4+ T cells. Clusters of T cell receptor (TCR)/CD3 complex formed in parallel with clusters of agonist class II MHC/peptide complexes on the surface of DCs. However, activation of naive but not effector T cells was accompanied by expulsion of the null class II MHC/peptide complexes from the T cell–DC interface. These effects were perturbed in the presence of exogenously supplied antagonist peptide. These results suggest that interference with selective relocation of agonist and null MHC/peptide complexes in the immunological synapse contributes to the inhibitory effect of antagonist peptides on the response of naive CD4+ T cells to agonist ligands.

An Incremental Increase in the Complexity of Peptides Bound to Class II MHC Changes the Diversity of Positively Selected αβ TCRs

Positive selection of the normal repertoire of TCRs results from low-avidity interactions with a set of self-peptides bound to the MHC molecules expressed by thymic epithelial cells. The contribution of the individual peptide to positive selection remains a matter of debate. Here, for the first time, we show that two covalent class II MHC-peptide complexes positively select different TCRs expressing a common transgenic TCRβ-chain and endogenous TCRα-chains. Simultaneous expression of both Ab-peptide complexes changed the diversity of positively selected TCRs, indicating an additive and possibly synergistic effect of various peptides in this process.

Activation of p53 in Immature Myeloid Precursor Cells Controls Differentiation into Ly6c+CD103+ Monocytic Antigen-Presenting Cells in Tumors

Summary CD103+ dendritic cells are critical for cross‐presentation of tumor antigens. Here we have shown that during immunotherapy, large numbers of cells expressing CD103 arose in murine tumors via direct differentiation of Ly6c+ monocytic precursors. These Ly6c+CD103+ cells could derive from bone‐marrow monocytic progenitors (cMoPs) or from peripheral cells present within the myeloid‐derived suppressor cell (MDSC) population. Differentiation was controlled by inflammation‐induced activation of the transcription factor p53, which drove upregulation of Batf3 and acquisition of the Ly6c+CD103+ phenotype. Mice with a targeted deletion of p53 in myeloid cells selectively lost the Ly6c+CD103+ population and became unable to respond to multiple forms of immunotherapy and immunogenic chemotherapy. Conversely, increasing p53 expression using a p53‐agonist drug caused a sustained increase in Ly6c+CD103+ cells in tumors during immunotherapy, which markedly enhanced the efficacy and duration of response. Thus, p53‐driven differentiation of Ly6c+CD103+ monocytic cells represents a potent and previously unrecognized target for immunotherapy. Graphical Abstract Figure. No Caption available. HighlightsDuring tumor immunotherapy, CD103+ APCs can arise from the myeloid lineageThese CD11c+CD103+ APCs are Batf3 dependent but co‐express monocytic markersDifferentiation of these cells from immature MDSC precursors is controlled by p53Selective ablation of this population results in profound defects in tumor immunity &NA; Conventional CD103+ DCs are critical APCs for cross‐presentation of tumor antigens. Sharma and colleagues show that a potent population of Batf3‐dependent, CD103+ cross‐presenting APCs can arise during tumor immunotherapy via direct differentiation of immature monocytic precursors present in the peripheral MDSC pool.

Generation of T Cell Hybridomas from Naturally Occurring FoxP3 + Regulatory T Cells

Generation of regulatory T cells (or Treg) derived hybridomas offers a tool to study their antigen specificity. T cells hybridomas are produced by fusing TCR α-β-thymoma BW5147 with highly dividing T cell population. In vitro anergy of Tregs is an obstacle in generation of highly dividing Treg population for their fusion. In this chapter, we describe a simple and efficient method to generate large number of blasting Treg and their successful fusion with thymoma BW5147. The resultant hybridomas lose Treg-specific transcription factor FoxP3, respond to antigenic stimulation by producing IL-2, and thus allow the evaluation of antigen specific, Tregs-derived TCRs.