Rafer Lutz

Social support and social norms: do both contribute to predicting leisure-time exercise?

OBJECTIVE To clarify the contribution of social support and social norms to exercise behavior. METHODS A sample of 363 college students completed a questionnaire that assessed social support and social negativity from friends, descriptive and injunctive social norms related to friends, perceived behavioral control, attitude, intention, and leisure-time exercise. RESULTS Esteem social support was the strongest predictor of total and strenuous leisure-time exercise (P < .001), and descriptive norm was a significant (P < .01 predictor of strenuous leisure-time exercise. CONCLUSION Social support and social norms contribute independently to our understanding of variation in the frequency of strenuous leisure-time exercise.

Clarifying the contribution of subjective norm to predicting leisure-time exercise.

OBJECTIVE To clarify the contribution of subjective norm to exercise intention and behavior by considering the influence of descriptive as well as injunctive social norms related to family and friends. METHODS A sample of 530 college students completed a questionnaire that assessed descriptive and injunctive social norms related to family and to friends, perceived behavioral control, attitude, intention, and leisure-time exercise. RESULTS Friend descriptive social norm was a significant predictor of both intention (p<.05) and leisure-time exercise (p<.001). CONCLUSION Descriptive norms should be incorporated into tests of the theory of planned behavior in the exercise domain.

Affect and Cognitive Performance in High School Wrestlers Undergoing Rapid Weight Loss

Recent research has demonstrated transient affective changes and impairment of short-term memory in college wrestlers as a result of rapid weight loss (RWL) of at least 5% body weight prior to competition. This study examined the effects of RWL on cognition and affect in high school wrestlers. Wrestlers were considered to be engaging in RWL if they were losing over 5% of body weight (n = 14). Those losing less than 1% of body weight (n = 14) were considered maintainers and served as the control group. Both groups were given a battery of tests assessing cognitive performance (Trail Making Tests A & B, Stroop color-word test, Wechsler digit span, and choice reaction/movement time) and affective state (PANAS) at normal weight (5 to 10 days prior to competition) and again 8 to 12 hours prior to weigh-in. Results indicated an average loss of 4.68 kg in the RWL group and 0.29 kg in the control group. A group-by-time MANOVA and univariate follow-up tests indicated a significant group-by-time interaction for positive affect, p < .014, with the RWL wrestlers having less positive affect than the control group just prior to weigh-in. However, none of the cognitive performance tests demonstrated significant differential changes for RWL vs. control groups, p > .10. Given the control for competition effects in the present study, results suggest there are affective disturbances, but not cognitive impairments, associated with RWL of at least 5% body weight in high school wrestlers.

Alternative Therapy Use Among the Young-Old (Ages 65 to 74): An Evaluation of the MIDUS Database

By the year 2020, 20% of the U.S. population will be age 65 years or older. From a health care perspective, there is growing concern about the aging population. Little is known about the elderly and their use of alternative therapies. This study included data from the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS). Three-hundred and thirty-five participants between the ages of 65 and 74 completed the interview and mailback questionnaire. One-hundred and forty-five individuals (43.3%) reported using alternative medicine therapies during the past year. The most common types of alternative medicine utilized were as follows: spiritual practices, exercise/movement therapies, special diets, chiropractic, and meditation. Income, education, and sex of respondent were found to be predictors of alternative therapy use among this age group. Results from this study could provide conventional practitioners greater awareness of the health beliefs and practices of their young-old patients.

Perceived Stress and Health Complaints: An Examination of the Moderating Roles of Personality and Physical Activity

275 undergraduate university students were asked to complete a battery concerning their health complaints, perceived stress, strenuous physical activity, and personality (“Big Five” traits). An hierarchical regression showed that Stress and Strenuous Physical Activity Participation, but not Personality, predicted the Number of Health Complaints in this sample. Also, there was a significant interaction for Stress by Strenuous Activity indicating individuals who did not frequently engage in strenuous leisure-time physical activity reported more health complaints than those who did. This finding corroborates the notion that physical activity (or fitness) may serve to attenuate the relation between stress and health complaints.

Covert muscle excitation is outflow from the central generation of motor imagery.

Two studies were conducted in an attempt to examine inflow and outflow processing by examining covert muscle excitation during motor imagery (MI) and its correlation with motor task performance. Examining 80 novice dart throwers in Experiment 1, MI produced greater levels of covert excitation at the dominant biceps in comparison to control imagery (CI). In addition, covert excitation correlated significantly with imagery ability and imagery vividness. This excitation, however, did not predict motor task acquisition or retention. Experiment 2 attempted to manipulate pre-imagery relaxation states by giving 104 novice dart performers a relaxation task or a distraction task before imagery sessions. MI resulted in improved task retention and resulted in significantly greater covert muscle excitation at the frontalis in comparison to CI. The relaxation condition, however, did not yield greater levels of muscular relaxation in comparison to the distraction condition, and did not yield greater imagery vividness or motor performance. Finally, covert muscle excitation did not predict motor acquisition or retention error. Results suggest that covert excitation is a byproduct of the central generation of the image that does not relate meaningfully to motor skill acquisition or retention gains.

Taking aim at the Müller-Lyer goalkeeper illusion: an illusion bias in action that originates from the target not being optically specified.

Van der Kamp and Masters (2008) reported that goalkeeper postures that mimic the Müller-Lyer (1889) illusion affect the location of handball penalty throws. In four experiments, we aimed to verify that the effects on throwing are consistent with an illusory bias (Experiments 1 and 2), and to examine how these observations can be understood in the context of Milner and Goodales (1995, 2008) two-visual systems model (Experiments 3 and 4). Experiments 1 and 2 confirmed that the goalkeeper Müller-Lyer posture may indeed induce an illusory bias in throwing, implying that allocentric information is used in far-aiming action tasks. Experiment 3 demonstrated that the bias was not related to a participants throwing skill. Experiment 4 suggested that an absence of visual information to instantaneously specify target location may have induced use of context-dependent allocentric information, causing the throwing bias. The results are discussed in the context of recent debates about the roles of the two-visual systems in perception and action. It is suggested that the two systems are first and foremost perceptual systems that serve the pickup of different sources of information.

Outstanding High School Coaches

JOPERD • Volume 83 No. 2 • February 2012 B eing a successful coach is more than Xs and Os, breaking down film, and winning games. Coaching is a complex and demanding profession that involves far more than just training athletes to compete (Vallee & Bloom, 2005). It is about mentoring young people toward becoming successful athletes and successful human beings. Many of the world’s greatest coaches are committed to teaching their players how to excel not only in athletics, but in life as well (Gould, Collins, Lauer, & Chung, 2007). And, despite cutbacks in funding in many high schools across the country, participation in high school sports has never been higher (Brown, 2009). With the impact that coaches can have on student-athletes’ lives, it is imperative to prepare and maintain quality individuals to serve in this challenging profession. So, what do effective high school sports leaders do to produce young athletes and people of quality? Do these coaches have unique philosophies? Are they masterful sport psychologists? Are they strict disciplinarians? Do they employ superior strategies during practices or games? Are they masterful leaders and visionaries? Previous research indicates that expert coaches have detailed planning and practice procedures and that the majority of their behaviors during practice are instructional in nature (Hardin, 2000; Jones, Housner, & Kornspan, 1995). Further, expert coaches employ more planning regarding what they will say during practices and employ preand postgame routines that tend to focus on opponent tendencies and emotion-control strategies (Bloom, Durand-Bush, & Salmela, 1997; Jones et al.). Other research has focused on common elements and characteristics shared by expert coaches. For example, numerous studies (e.g., Bloom et al., 1997; Horton, Baker, & Deakin, 2005; Langsdorf, 1976; Tharp & Gallimore, 1976) have examined the practice and game behaviors of expert coaches, finding that they all had wellestablished routines, which enabled them to accomplish the tasks leading up to and following a competition. Douge and Hastie (1993) reported that effective coaches not only have a set of established behaviors, but also have an ability to observe, analyze, synthesize, and modify their coaching to fit the situation and the needs of those involved. Bloom and Salmela (2000) found that expert coaches have an ongoing quest for personal growth and knowledge, display a strong work ethic, communicate effectively, empathize with players, and are good teachers. Hardin (2000) reported that expert coaches display very similar characteristics to expert teachers in that they plan extensively, rely heavily on experience, and value content knowledge and continuing education. Expert coaches have also been shown to have extensive libraries, to possess extensive knowledge in their field, to organize knowledge in a hierarchical fashion, and to be highly skilled problem solvers (DeMarco & McCullick, 1997). The goal of the present study was to examine the coaching philosophies, views, and practices of outstanding high school coaches of various male and female sports across the United States. The intention was to determine whether these coaches used unique or innovative techniques or strategies that contributed to their sucOutstanding High School Coaches: Philosophies, Views, and Practices

Examination of the hierarchical self-esteem model in adults with physical disability

The primary purpose of this research was to examine the validity of the hierarchical physical self-perceptions model developed by Fox and Corbin (1989) within a population of physically disabled individuals. The secondary purpose was to compare the physical self-perceptions of those who were physically active and physically inactive. 97 adults with physical disabilities completed a self-esteem scale and the Physical Self-perception Profile, Japanese short version to assess General Physical Self-worth and its subdomains of Perceived Sports Competence, Physical Condition, Attractive Body, and Physical Strength. Path analysis showed adequate fit of the data to the hierarchical physical self-perception model. In general, physical self-perceptions were rated more favorably by physically active participants.

A National Study of Nonrenewal in High School Coaching.

JOPERD • Volume 77 No. 7 • September 2006 L ike those who hear the catch phrase on Donald Trump’s TV reality show The Apprentice, many coaches are hearing those dreaded words “You’re fi red!” On the reality show, the stakes are high because the eventual winner receives a position overseeing one of Trump’s multimillion-dollar business ventures and a six-fi gure salary. While the stakes for high school coaches may seem small in comparison, their jobs are arguably more signifi cant because of a coach’s ability to affect the lives and futures of the nation’s youths. American coaches’ jobs hinge on the results of competitive activities that are highly spontaneous and unpredictable (Edwards, 1973). “What makes the position of coach even more unique is the fact that these competitive activities are highly visible and the results of the competitions are publicly reported and discussed” (Coakley, 1994, p. 194). Though Coakley was referring to college coaches, we believe the analogy holds true for high school coaches as well. Of course, not all high school coaches face the same degree of pressure. Pressure to win may vary depending on factors such as the sport, school size, level of competition, school tradition, level of administrative support or community support, or the degree of parental involvement. In today’s hyper-competitive environment, parent-coach confrontations are becoming much more prevalent. Apparently parents think it is their right to have regular, sometimes inappropriate, contact with coaches. More often these confrontations go beyond their original intent, at times leading to violence. In Connecticut, the parent of a high school softball player clubbed the coach in the back of the head with an aluminum bat for suspending his daughter for missing a game. A few days before the Connecticut incident, a girls high school rugby coach in California was punched and kicked unconscious by a group of parents when the coach tried to break up a fi ght between a parent and a referee (Pennington, 2005). In Texas, a 45-year-old father, who had been barred from attending the local high school football games for shoving and verbally abusing his son’s coaches, critically wounded the head coach/athletics director at his son’s high school (CNN.com, 2005). It seems that a win-at-all-costs attitude has become common in high school athletics. Based on anecdotal reports, fans and parents often seem to have unrealistic expectations for the coaches of their children. Because the pressure seems to be increasing, it is important to closely examine patterns of nonrenewal and the reasons for it in high school coaching.