Raghupathy Anchala

Hypertension in India: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence, awareness, and control of hypertension

Background: A region-specific (urban and rural parts of north, east, west, and south India) systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence, awareness, and control of hypertension among Indian patients have not been done before. Methods: Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus databases from 1950 to 30 April 2013 were searched for ‘prevalence, burden, awareness, and control of blood pressure (BP) or hypertension (≥140 SBP and or ≥90 DBP) among Indian adults’ (≥18 years). Of the total 3047 articles, 142 were included. Results: Overall prevalence for hypertension in India was 29.8% (95% confidence interval: 26.7–33.0). Significant differences in hypertension prevalence were noted between rural and urban parts [27.6% (23.2–32.0) and 33.8% (29.7–37.8); P = 0.05]. Regional estimates for the prevalence of hypertension were as follows: 14.5% (13.3–15.7), 31.7% (30.2–33.3), 18.1% (16.9–19.2), and 21.1% (20.1–22.0) for rural north, east, west, and south India; and 28.8% (26.9–30.8), 34.5% (32.6–36.5), 35.8% (35.2–36.5), and 31.8% (30.4–33.1) for urban north, east, west, and south India, respectively. Overall estimates for the prevalence of awareness, treatment, and control of BP were 25.3% (21.4–29.3), 25.1% (17.0–33.1), and 10.7% (6.5–15.0) for rural Indians; and 42.0% (35.2–48.9), 37.6% (24.0–51.2), and 20.2% (11.6–28.7) for urban Indians. Conclusion: About 33% urban and 25% rural Indians are hypertensive. Of these, 25% rural and 42% urban Indians are aware of their hypertensive status. Only 25% rural and 38% of urban Indians are being treated for hypertension. One-tenth of rural and one-fifth of urban Indian hypertensive population have their BP under control.

Cost effective interventions for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in low and middle income countries: a systematic review

BackgroundWhile there is good evidence to show that behavioural and lifestyle interventions can reduce cardiovascular disease risk factors in affluent settings, less evidence exists in lower income settings.This study systematically assesses the evidence on cost-effectiveness for preventive cardiovascular interventions in low and middle-income settings.MethodsDesign: Systematic review of economic evaluations on interventions for prevention of cardiovascular disease.Data sources: PubMed, Web of Knowledge, Scopus and Embase, Opensigle, the Cochrane database, Business Source Complete, the NHS Economic Evaluations Database, reference lists and email contact with experts.Eligibility criteria for selecting studies: we included economic evaluations conducted in adults, reporting the effect of interventions to prevent cardiovascular disease in low and middle income countries as defined by the World Bank. The primary outcome was a change in cardiovascular disease occurrence including coronary heart disease, heart failure and stroke.Data extraction: After selection of the studies, data were extracted by two independent investigators using a previously constructed tool and quality was evaluated using Drummond’s quality assessment score.ResultsFrom 9731 search results we found 16 studies, which presented economic outcomes for interventions to prevent cardiovascular disease in low and middle income settings, with most of these reporting positive cost effectiveness results.When the same interventions were evaluated across settings, within and between papers, the likelihood of an intervention being judged cost effective was generally lower in regions with lowest gross national income. While population based interventions were in most cases more cost effective, cost effectiveness estimates for individual pharmacological interventions were overall based upon a stronger evidence base.ConclusionsWhile more studies of cardiovascular preventive interventions are needed in low and mid income settings, the available high-level of evidence supports a wide range of interventions for the prevention of cardiovascular disease as being cost effective across all world regions.

The Role of Decision Support System (DSS) in Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background The potential role of DSS in CVD prevention remains unclear as only a few studies report on patient outcomes for cardiovascular disease. Methods and Results A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials and observational studies was done using Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, PubMed, Amed, CINAHL, Web of Science, Scopus databases; reference lists of relevant studies to 30 July 2011; and email contact with experts. The primary outcome was prevention of cardiovascular disorders (myocardial infarction, stroke, coronary heart disease, peripheral vascular disorders and heart failure) and management of hypertension owing to decision support systems, clinical decision supports systems, computerized decision support systems, clinical decision making tools and medical decision making (interventions). From 4116 references ten studies met our inclusion criteria (including 16,312 participants). Five papers reported outcomes on blood pressure management, one paper on heart failure, two papers each on stroke, and coronary heart disease. The pooled estimate for CDSS versus control group differences in SBP (mm of Hg) was - 0.99 (95% CI −3.02 to 1.04 mm of Hg; I2 = 0; p = 0.851). Conclusions DSS show an insignificant benefit in the management and control of hypertension (insignificant reduction of SBP). The paucity of well-designed studies on patient related outcomes is a major hindrance that restricts interpretation for evaluating the role of DSS in secondary prevention. Future studies on DSS should (1) evaluate both physician performance and patient outcome measures (2) integrate into the routine clinical workflow with a provision for decision support at the point of care.

Evaluation of Effectiveness and Cost‐Effectiveness of a Clinical Decision Support System in Managing Hypertension in Resource Constrained Primary Health Care Settings: Results From a Cluster Randomized Trial

Background Randomized control trials from the developed world report that clinical decision support systems (DSS) could provide an effective means to improve the management of hypertension (HTN). However, evidence from developing countries in this regard is rather limited, and there is a need to assess the impact of a clinical DSS on managing HTN in primary health care center (PHC) settings. Methods and Results We performed a cluster randomized trial to test the effectiveness and cost‐effectiveness of a clinical DSS among Indian adult hypertensive patients (between 35 and 64 years of age), wherein 16 PHC clusters from a district of Telangana state, India, were randomized to receive either a DSS or a chart‐based support (CBS) system. Each intervention arm had 8 PHC clusters, with a mean of 102 hypertensive patients per cluster (n=845 in DSS and 783 in CBS groups). Mean change in systolic blood pressure (SBP) from baseline to 12 months was the primary endpoint. The mean difference in SBP change from baseline between the DSS and CBS at the 12th month of follow‐up, adjusted for age, sex, height, waist, body mass index, alcohol consumption, vegetable intake, pickle intake, and baseline differences in blood pressure, was −6.59 mm Hg (95% confidence interval: −12.18 to −1.42; P=0.021). The cost‐effective ratio for CBS and DSS groups was

‘Decision support system (DSS) for prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD) among hypertensive (HTN) patients in Andhra Pradesh, India’ – a cluster randomised community intervention trial

96.01 and

Development and validation of a clinical and computerised Decision Support System for Management of Hypertension (DSS-HTN) at a Primary Health Care (PHC) setting

36.57 per mm of SBP reduction, respectively. Conclusion Clinical DSS are effective and cost‐effective in the management of HTN in resource‐constrained PHC settings. Clinical Trial Registration URL: http://www.ctri.nic.in. Unique identifier: CTRI/2012/03/002476.

Does a nutrition education programme change the knowledge and practice of healthy diets among high school adolescents in Chennai, India?

BackgroundVery few studies having decision support systems as an intervention report on patient outcomes for cardiovascular disease in the Western world. The potential role of decision support system for the management of blood pressure among Indian hypertensives remains unclear. We propose a cluster randomised trial that aims to test the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of DSS among Indian hypertensive patients.MethodsThe trial design is a cluster randomised community intervention trial, in which the participants would be adult male and female hypertensive patients, in the age group of 35 to 64 years, reporting to the Primary Health Care centres of Mahabubnagar district, Andhra Pradesh, India. The objective of the study is to test the effectiveness and compare the cost effectiveness and cost utility among hypertensive subjects randomized to receive either decision support system or a chart based algorithmic support system in urban and rural areas of a district in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India (baseline versus 12 months follow up). The primary outcome would be a comparison of the systolic blood pressure at 0 and 12 months among hypertensive patients randomized to receive the decision support system or the chart based algorithmic support system. Computer generated randomisation and an investigator and analyser blinded method would be followed. 1600 participants; 800 to each arm; each arm having eight clusters of hundred participants each have been recruited between 01 August 2011 - 01 March 2012. A twelve month follow up will be completed by March 2013 and results are expected by April 2013.DiscussionThis cluster randomized community intervention trial on DSS will enable policy makers to find out the effectiveness, cost effectiveness and cost utility of decision support system for management of blood pressure among hypertensive patients in India. Most of the previous studies on decision support system have focused on physician performance, adherence and on preventive care reminders. The uniqueness of the proposed study lies in finding out the effectiveness of a decision support system on patient related outcomes.Trial registrationCTRI/2012/03/002476, Clinical Trial Registry - India.

Perceptions and practices related to diabetes reported by persons with diabetes attending diabetic care clinics: The India 11-city 9-state study

Background Hypertension remains the top global cause of disease burden. Decision support systems (DSS) could provide an adequate and cost-effective means to improve the management of hypertension at a primary health care (PHC) level in a developing country, nevertheless evidence on this regard is rather limited. Methods Development of DSS software was based on an algorithmic approach for (a) evaluation of a hypertensive patient, (b) risk stratification (c) drug management and (d) lifestyle interventions, based on Indian guidelines for hypertension II (2007). The beta testing of DSS software involved a feedback from the end users of the system on the contents of the user interface. Software validation and piloting was done in field, wherein the virtual recommendations and advice given by the DSS were compared with two independent experts (government doctors from the non-participating PHC centers). Results The overall percent agreement between the DSS and independent experts among 60 hypertensives on drug management was 85% (95% CI: 83.61 - 85.25). The kappa statistic for overall agreement for drug management was 0.659 (95% CI: 0.457 - 0.862) indicating a substantial degree of agreement beyond chance at an alpha fixed at 0.05 with 80% power. Receiver operator curve (ROC) showed a good accuracy for the DSS, wherein, the area under curve (AUC) was 0.848 (95% CI: 0.741 - 0.948). Sensitivity and specificity of the DSS were 83.33 and 85.71% respectively when compared with independent experts. Conclusion A point of care, pilot tested and validated DSS for management of hypertension has been developed in a resource constrained low and middle income setting and could contribute to improved management of hypertension at a primary health care level.

Perception of care and barriers to treatment in individuals with diabetic retinopathy in India: 11-city 9-state study.

Background: Nutrition education is used as a way of promoting lifelong healthy eating practices among school adolescents. There is limited published information on the impact of nutrition education programmes in India. Objectives: To assess the knowledge and practices of high school students with respect to healthy diets before and after a nutrition education programme. Design: Pre- and post-intervention questionnaire survey. Setting: Two private schools in Chennai city. Method: This study was conducted among adolescents studying in standard VIII and IX in two private schools in Chennai city. Nutrition education as lectures and interactive discussions were given to students one hour every week for a period of 10 weeks. Information on knowledge and attitude on healthy eating and dietary practices was collected before and after the nutrition education intervention using a questionnaire. Differences in knowledge, attitude and practice of students on healthy diet were measured using the X2 test with the level of significance p<0.05. Results: A total of 181 students were involved in the study (response rate 92%). Following the nutrition education programme, satisfactory dietary knowledge significantly improved from 37% to 67% (p<0.001). Similarly, students showing a positive attitude towards healthy diet increased from 18% to 40% (p<0.001). The proportion of students taking soft drinks reduced from 20% to 10% (p<0.01) and ingestion of fast food items through fast food restaurants reduced significantly. Conclusions: This short-term nutrition education programme brought significant improvements in dietary knowledge and reductions in soft drinks and fast foods consumption.

Eye care infrastructure and human resources for managing diabetic retinopathy in India: The India 11-city 9-state study.

Background: India has the second largest population of persons with diabetes and a significant proportion has poor glycemic control and inadequate awareness of management of diabetes. Objectives: Determine the level of awareness regarding management of diabetes and its complications and diabetic care practices in India. Methods: The cross-sectional, hospital-based survey was conducted in 11 cities where public and private providers of diabetic care were identified. At each diabetic care facility, 4–6 persons with diabetes were administered a structured questionnaire in the local language. Results: Two hundred and eighty-five persons with diabetes were interviewed. The mean duration since diagnosis of diabetes was 8.1 years (standard deviation ± 7.3). Half of the participants reported a family history of diabetes and 41.7% were hypertensive. Almost 62.1% stated that they received information on diabetes and its management through interpersonal channels. Family history (36.1%), increasing age (25.3%), and stress (22.8%) were the commonest causes of diabetes reported. Only 29.1% stated that they monitored their blood sugar levels at home using a glucometer. The commonest challenges reported in managing diabetes were dietary modifications (67.4%), compliance with medicines (20.5%), and cost of medicines (17.9%). Around 76.5% were aware of complications of diabetes. Kidney failure (79.8%), blindness/vision loss (79.3%), and heart attack (56.4%) were the commonest complications mentioned. Almost 67.7% of the respondents stated that they had had an eye examination earlier. Conclusions: The findings have significant implications for the organization of diabetes services in India for early detection and management of complications, including eye complications.