Rahul Hamid

Sharing of Noninjection Drug-Use Implements as a Risk Factor for Hepatitis C

This study examined sharing noninjection drug implements as a risk factor for hepatitis C (HCV) infection among women drug users (n = 123) with no history of drug injection. Participants were street-recruited from East Harlem, New York City, between October 1997 and June 1999. Participants were administered a survey measuring risk factors for HCV. Prevalence of HCV and HIV infections was 19.5% and 14.6%, respectively. Multiple logistic regression determined significant associations between sharing noninjection drug-use implements and HCV infection. “Ever shared both oral and intranasal noninjection drug implements” was independently associated with HCV infection [Odds ratio (OR) 2.83; Confidence interval (CI) 1.04, 7.72; p = 0.04]; “ever shared noninjected heroin implements with an injector” was a trend (OR 3.06; CI. 85, 10.79; p = 0.08). The strongest association between sharing noninjection drug-use implements and HCV infection was found among HIV positive individuals (χ2 = 8.8, 1 d.f., p < 0.01). These findings, if supported by future research, indicate a need to reassess policies regarding HCV infection.

Women's drug injection practices in East Harlem: an event analysis in a high-risk community.

This study described the most recent injection events of injection-drug-using women, determined the prevalence of HIV, hepatitis B (HBV), and hepatitis C (HCV), and identified significant predictors of injection-related risk behaviors. After validation of drug use, 185 street-recruited women participated in structured interviews and were offered HIV, HBV, and HCV testing and counseling. Interview topics included (1) demographic characteristics, (2) characteristics of injection partners (IPs), and (3) relevant situation-specific factors. Prevalence was 28% for HIV infection, 80% for HBV, and 70% for HCV. Injection events were either solitary (n = 110) or social (n = 75). Most were safe, and 75% of syringes used were obtained from a syringe exchange. Inferential analyses identified two variables that independently predicted unsafe events: (1) respondent had injected previously with her IP, and (2) her IP was her spouse or primary heterosexual partner. Two trends were identified: Injection events in which women felt “very close” to their IP or reported lack of control over injection practices tended to be unsafe. Although most events were safe, safe practices were not adhered to with spouses or primary partners. Syringe exchanges should be supported and may be an ideal setting for interventions targeted to drug-injecting couples.

Recruitment of heterosexual couples in public health research: a study protocol

BackgroundPublic health research involving social or kin groups (such as sexual partners or family members), rather than samples of unrelated individuals, has become more widespread in response to social ecological approaches to disease treatment and prevention. This approach requires the development of innovative sampling, recruitment and screening methodologies tailored to the study of related individuals.MethodsIn this paper, we describe a set of sampling, recruitment and screening protocols developed to enlist urban, drug-using, heterosexual couples into a public health research study. This population is especially hard to reach because they are engaged in illegal and/or stigmatized behaviors. The protocols were designed to integrate adaptive sampling, street- and referral-based recruitment, and screening procedures to verify study eligibility and relationship status.DiscussionRecruitment of heterosexual couples through one partner, preferably the female, can be an effective enlistment technique. Verification of relationship status is an important component of dyadic research. Comparison of parallel questionnaires administered to each member of a dyad can aid in the assessment of relationship status. However, multiple independent sources of information should be used to verify relationship status when available. Adaptive sampling techniques were effective in reaching drug-using heterosexual couples in an urban setting, and the application of these methods to other groups of related individuals in clinical and public health research may prove to be useful. However, care must be taken to consider potential sources of sampling bias when interpreting and generalizing study results.

Agreement between Urinalysis and Self-Reported Drug Use

One hundred fifty-eight drug users received an interview that included self-reported drug use. Opiate/cocaine use in the prior 48 hours was assessed by urinalysis. Fifty-five subjects received a urine test after the interview and 103 were tested before. Chi-square tests were performed to determine if agreement between self-reported drug use and urine test results was associated with timing of urine testing. The rate of agreement was 58% when the urine test was performed after the interview and 93% when performed before the interview (chi2 = 28.6, p < .001). Conducting urine tests before an interview can increase the accuracy of self-reports.

Contextual Determinants of Condom Use Among Female Sex Exchangers in East Harlem, NYC: An Event Analysis

Recent studies have revealed a variety of contexts involving HIV risk behaviors among women who exchange sex for money or drugs. Event analysis was used to identify the individual, relationship, and contextual factors that contribute to these high-risk sex exchange practices. Analyses were conducted on data obtained from 155 drug-using women who reported details of their most recent sex exchange event with male clients. The majority of sex exchange encounters (78%) involved consistent condom use. In multivariable analysis, protective behavior was associated primarily with situational and relationship variables, such as exchange location, substance use, sexual practices, and respondent/client discussion and control. In order to inform HIV prevention programs targeted to women sex exchangers, further research is needed on the contextual determinants of risk, especially with regard to condom-use negotiation and factors involving substance use that adversely affect womens ability to manage protective behavior in the context of sex exchange.

Drug-Using Women's Sexual Risk: An Event Analysis

Using event analysis, this study describes the most recent sexual events of drug-using women and their male partners and identifies relationship-specific and event-specific determinants of condom use. Women drug users (n = 320) were recruited from the streets of East Harlem. After validation of drug use, they participated in structured interviews and were offered HIV testing and counseling. Interview topics included the following: (1) demographic characteristics of respondents, (2) relationship factors, including age difference, race/ethnicity concordance, and HIV serostatus of partners, and (3) event-specific factors, including sexual repertoire, communication about condom use, and perception of HIV risk. Univariate and multivariate analyses identified five major variables associated with event-specific condom use: (1) closeness to partner, (2) perceived dyadic serostatus, (3) sexual repertoire, (4) communication about condoms, and (5) perceived control of condom use. Behavioral interventions to reduce sexual risk should target dyads with long-standing sexual relationships and focus on the dynamics of the relationship, especially the issues of dyadic serostatus, intimacy, communication, and control.

Effectiveness of Couple-Based HIV Counseling and Testing for Women Substance Users and Their Primary Male Partners: A Randomized Trial.

A randomized trial was conducted to test the effectiveness of couple-based HIV counseling and testing (CB-HIV-CT) and women-only relationship-focused HIV counseling and testing (WRF-HIV-CT) in reducing HIV risk compared to the National Institute on Drug Abuse HIV-CT standard intervention. Substance using HIV-negative women and their primary heterosexual partner (N = 330 couples) were randomized to 1 of the 3 interventions. Follow-up assessments measuring HIV risk behaviors and other relevant variables were conducted at 3- and 9-months postintervention. Repeated measures generalized linear mixed model analysis was used to assess treatment effects. A significant reduction in HIV risk was observed over the 9-month assessment in the CB-HIV-CT group compared to that of the control group (b = −0.51, t[527] = −3.20, P = 0.002) and compared to that of the WRF-HIV-CT group (b = −0.34, t[527] = −2.07, P = 0.04), but no significant difference was observed between WRF-HIV-CT and controls (b = −0.17, t[527] = −1.09, P = 0.28). A brief couple-based HIV counseling and testing intervention designed to address both drug-related and sexual risk behaviors among substance using women and their primary male partners was shown to be more effective at reducing overall HIV risk compared to a standard HIV-CT intervention in an urban setting.

Trends in injection risk behaviors in a sample of New York City injection drug users: 1992-1995.

OBJECTIVES This study assessed the relation between year of recruitment into an AIDS prevention project and likelihood of engaging (yes/no) in injection risk behaviors. METHODS In total, 834 injection drug users were recruited over a 44-month period (January 1992-August 1995) in New York City. Logistic regression was used to examine trends in three behaviors, across four successive annual cohorts: using needles/syringes that were previously used by another person, using injection supplies (e.g., cookers, cotton, rinse water) that had been previously used, and giving or lending of used needles/syringes to another person. RESULTS Significant (p < .0001) decreasing trends occurred in two behaviors: giving or lending of used needles/syringes to another person and use of injection supplies that had been used by another person. Sample characteristics were generally consistent over time and did not obviate significant injection risk trends. CONCLUSIONS Decreasing trends in injection risk behaviors could not be explained by changing sample characteristics. Even though some injectors report engaging in risky injection practices, the confluence of numerous AIDS prevention efforts in the 1990s has contributed to an overall reduction in the likelihood of such behaviors.

Factors Associated with Needle Exchange Use in East Harlem, New York City

The research reported in this paper focused on out-of-treatment injection drug users recruited from the streets of East Harlem, New York City. Drug use was verified by urinalysis and HIV testing was offered. The research compared self-reported users and non-users of needle exchange programs (NEPs) on sociodemographic variables, HIV-related risk behaviors, and selected health variables. Results indicated that being White and having been incarcerated were the sociodemographic variables most strongly associated with NEP use. Other findings include the following: (l)compared to other groups, Puerto Ricans were most likely to be non-users of NEPs; (2) there were no significant differences between NEP users and non-users in reported injection risks, but NEP users reported significantly less unprotected sex; and (3) health data indicated that almost 50% of those tested were HIV infected and many had histories of sexually transmitted diseases and hepatitis.

Crack users in East Harlem, New York and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: HIV-related risk behaviors and predictors of serostatus

Crack use has been associated with increased risk for HIV seropositivity. This study was undertaken to examine HIV-related risk behaviors among crack users in East Harlem, New York and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, two northeastern communities which have reported extensive crack use. Crack users recruited in East Harlem (n = 1434) and Philadelphia (n = 694) were compared on demographics, drug and sex-related risk behaviors, health-related behaviors, and HIV serostatus. Many significant differences were found, and seropositivity was higher in the New York sample (25% vs. 11%, chi 2 = 36.28, p < .001). Being a recent drug injector was a significant predictors of seropositivity in both communities, and differences between communities were found in additional predictors of serostatus. Results suggest that tailored HIV interventions may be needed for different communities. In addition, aggregate data across communities, even those that may be in geographical proximity, may obfuscate differences important to incorporate in developing prevention/intervention efforts.