Rainer J. Fasching

High-Performance Ultrathin Solid Oxide Fuel Cells for Low-Temperature Operation

Thin-film solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) structures containing electrolyte membranes 50-150 nm thick were fabricated with the help of sputtering, lithography, and etching. The submicrometer SOFCs were made of yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) or YSZ/ gadolinium-doped ceria composites electrolyte and 80 nm porous Pt as cathode and anode. The peak power densities were 200 and 400 mW/cm 2 at 350 and 400°C, respectively. The high power densities achieved are not only due to the reduction of electrolyte thickness but also to the high charge-transfer reaction rates at the interfaces between the nanoporous electrodes (cathode and/or anode) and the nanocrystalline thin electrolyte.

Solid oxide fuel cell with corrugated thin film electrolyte

A low temperature micro solid oxide fuel cell with corrugated electrolyte membrane was developed and tested. To increase the electrochemically active surface area, yttria-stabilized zirconia membranes with thickness of 70 nm were deposited onto prepatterned silicon substrates. Fuel cell performance of the corrugated electrolyte membranes released from silicon substrate showed an increase of power density relative to membranes with planar electrolytes. Maximum power densities of the corrugated fuel cells of 677 mW/cm2 and 861 mW/cm2 were obtained at 400 and 450 degrees C, respectively.

Microfabrication Technology of Biodegradable Polymers for Interconnecting Microstructures

A microtechnology for synthetic biodegradable polymers has been developed to fabricate three-dimensionally (3-D) shaped and microstructured multilayer constructs for biomedical applications. A unique micromolding method is proposed to create deep and interconnecting microstructures which facilitate cellular scale interconnection across the layers for cell-to-cell communication and the supply of nutrients and oxygen. A geometrical condition and molding setup for interconnecting microstructuring are described and demonstrated experimentally. Furthermore, various types of synthetic biodegradable polymers are explored and compared with regard to the behavior during the proposed process. Considering the thermal instability of synthetic biodegradable polymers, it is also confirmed that the proposed process does not affect the property of the polymers. Finally, microfabricated 3-D multilayer constructs is presented to demonstrate the feasibility of the technology as a unique scaffolding method

In vivo O2 measurement inside single photosynthetic cells.

The oxygen evolution of single cells was investigated using a nano-probe with an ultra-micro electrode (UME) in a submicron sized system in combination with a micro-fluidic system. A single cell was immobilized in the micro-fluidic system and a nano-probe was inserted into the cytosolic space of the single cell. Then, the UME was used for an in vivo amperometric experiment at a fixed potential and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to detect oxygen evolution of the single cell under various light intensities.

Open micro-fluidic system for atomic force microscopy-guided in situ electrochemical probing of a single cell

Ultra-sharp nano-probes and customized atomic force microscopy (AFM) have previously been developed in our laboratory for in situ sub-cellular probing of electrochemical phenomena in living plant cells during their photosynthesis. However, this AFM-based electrochemical probing still has numerous engineering challenges such as immobilization of the live cells, compatibility of the immobilization procedure with AFM manipulation of the probe, maintenance of biological activity of the cells for an extended time while performing the measurements, and minimization of electrochemical noise. Thus, we have developed an open micro-fluidic channel system (OMFC) in which individual cells can be immobilized in micro-traps by capillary flow. This system affords easy AFM access and allows for maintenance of the cells in a well-defined chemical environment, which sustains their biological activity. The use of micro-channels for making the electrochemical measurements significantly reduces parasitic electrical capacitances and allows for current detection in the sub-pico-ampere range at high signal bandwidths. The OMFC was further studied using simulation packages for optimal design conditions. This system was successfully used to measure light-dependent oxidation currents of a few pico-amperes from the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Pencil probe system for electrochemical analysis and modification in nanometer dimensions

A pencil-shaped electrochemical transducer system for analysis or surface modification in nanometer dimension has been developed. High aspect ratio tip structures are shaped combining isotropic and anisotropic deep reactive etch processes to form the body of the transducer. In this way, tips with an aspect ratio higher than 20 and a tip radius of smaller than 50 nm can be achieved. Subsequently, a three-layer system (an isolation layer: silicon nitride, a metal layer: platinum or gold and an isolation layer: silicon nitride) was deposited on the tip structure. Planarization of this structure in combination with a back etch process enables a precise exposure of the buried metal layer down to an electrode dimension of 200 nm on the tip. Electrochemical and impedance spectroscopic characterization showed full electrochemical functionality of the transducer system. Due to the high aspect ratio topography, this probe is particularly suited for Scanning Electrochemical Microscope (SECM) - methodologies. Furthermore this technology promises a feasible production possibility for both probe-arrays and probes on cantilevers.

Ultrasharp high-aspect-ratio probe array for SECM and AFM Analysis

A powerful experimental tool, ultra-sharp nano-electrode array is designed, fabricated and characterized. The application on a combination of Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy (SECM) and the Atomic Force Microcopy (AFM) is demonstrated. It can measure sample electrochemically initiated by SECM changes of topography while detecting topography using AFM. In order to realize this, a specialized probe system that is composed of a micro-mechanical bending structure necessary for the AFM mode and an electrochemical UME-tip required for a high performance SECM is crucial. The probe array is a row of silicon transducers embedded in silicon nitride cantilever array. The sharp high-aspect ratio (20:1) silicon tips are shaped and a thin layer of silicon nitride is deposited, which embeds the silicon tips in a silicon nitride layer so that they protrude through the nitride. Thus, the embedded silicon tips with a diameter less than 600 nm, the top radius less than 20 nm, and the aspect ratio as high as 20 can be achieved. A metal layer and an insulator layer are deposited on these tip structures to make each probe selectively conductive. Finally, cantilever structures are shaped and released by etching the silicon substrate from the backside. Electrochemical and impedance spectroscopic characterization show electrochemical functionality of the transducer system.

Miniaturized integrated biosensors

Miniaturized integrated thin-film biosensors were developed for use in clinical analyzers and for in vivo applications. A glucose and a lactate sensor were integrated with a pH-sensor on a flexible substrate. Both enzyme sensors are based on the electrochemical measurement of H2O2 produced by the enzymes glucoseoxidase and lactateoxidase respectively. The solid state pH-sensor uses a neutral carrier membrane. The intended application of this device is the monitoring of metabolic parameters in the intensive care unit and the operation theater and the use as a sensor module in clinical analyzers. The glucose-, lactate- and pH-sensor was tested in buffer solutions and undiluted serum showing excellent performance.

Fabrication of an electrochemical tip-probe system embedded in SiNx cantilevers for simultaneous SECM and AFM analysis

An electrochemical transducer system embedded in silicon nitride cantilevers has been fabricated for simultaneous Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy (SECM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) analysis. Sharpened high-aspect ratio silicon tips are shaped combining isotropic and anisotropic deep-reactive etch processes and form the body of the transducer. Deposition of a silicon nitride followed by a back-etch step allows embedding these silicon tips in a silicon nitride layer so that they protrude through the nitride. This way, embedded silicon tips with a diameter smaller than 600 nm, a radius smaller than 50 nm, and an aspect ratio higher than 20 can be achieved. Subsequently, a platinum layer and an insulator layer are deposited on these tip structures. Introducing a metal masking technology utilizing Focused Ion Beam (FIB) technology, a precise exposure of the buried metal layer can be achieved to form ultra-micro electrodes on top of the tip. Finally, cantilever structures are shaped and released by etching the silicon substrate from the backside. Electrochemical and impedance spectroscopic characterization show electrochemical functionality of the transducer system. Due to the high aspect ratio topography of the tip structure and low spring constant of silicon nitride cantilevers, these probes are particularly suited for high resolution SECM and AFM analysis. Furthermore, this technology allows a production of both linear probe-arrays and two-dimensional probe-arrays.

Three-dimensional biodegradable microscaffolding: Scaffold characterization and cell population at single cell resolution

Engineering artificial tissue scaffolds with a similar organization to that of the natural tissue is a key element to the successful recapitulation of function. However, three-dimensional (3-D) fabrication of tissue scaffolds containing complex microarchitectures still remains a challenge. In addition, little attention has been paid to the issue of how to incorporate cells within 3-D tissue scaffolds that contain precisely engineered architectures. Here we report a 3-D biodegradable microscaffolding (3D-BMS) technology and its process characterization as well as a microscale cellular loading technology as an efficient way to massively populate biodegradable polymers with cells at single cell resolution. In this study a particular emphasis was given to characterization of the material properties of the biodegradable polymers undergoing the 3D-BMS processes. Optimal process conditions were identified in order to avoid any unwanted change in material properties, such as crystallinity and scaffold strength, that have a direct impact on the degradation speed and physical integrity of the constructed scaffolds. For precise control of the cell distribution within the microstructured scaffolds a high precision microsieve structure was designed to localize rat hepatocytes and human articular chondrocytes in the biodegradable polymers. Cell suspensions were passed at a predetermined flow rate through biodegradable polymer layers that contained tapered microholes in a massively parallel process. This high resolution cell seeding method allows accurate manipulation of cell placement in thin layers of biodegradable polymers.