Ralph Buehler

Walking and Cycling to Health: A Comparative Analysis of City, State, and International Data

OBJECTIVES We sought to determine the magnitude, direction, and statistical significance of the relationship between active travel and rates of physical activity, obesity, and diabetes. METHODS We examined aggregate cross-sectional health and travel data for 14 countries, all 50 US states, and 47 of the 50 largest US cities through graphical, correlation, and bivariate regression analysis on the country, state, and city levels. RESULTS At all 3 geographic levels, we found statistically significant negative relationships between active travel and self-reported obesity. At the state and city levels, we found statistically significant positive relationships between active travel and physical activity and statistically significant negative relationships between active travel and diabetes. CONCLUSIONS Together with many other studies, our analysis provides evidence of the population-level health benefits of active travel. Policies on transport, land-use, and urban development should be designed to encourage walking and cycling for daily travel.

Sustainable Transport in Freiburg: Lessons from Germany's Environmental Capital

ABSTRACT This article examines changes in transport and land-use policies in Germany over the last 40 years that have encouraged more walking, bicycling and public transport use. It focuses on a case study of policy changes in the city of Freiburg, where over the last three decades, the number of bicycle trips tripled, public transport ridership doubled, and the share of trips by automobile declined from 38% to 32%. Since 1990, motorization rates have leveled-off and per-capita CO2 emissions from transport have fallen—despite strong economic growth. The analysis identifies policies that are transferable to car-oriented countries around the world.

Integrating Bicycling and Public Transport in North America

This article describes the present approaches to integrating bicycling and public transit in large American and Canadian cities. The authors first analyze national trends in bike-and-ride programs, including the provision of bike racks on buses, accommodation of bikes on rail vehicles, and bike parking at rail stations and bus stops. The remainder of the article presents case studies of bike-transit integration in six large American cities: San Francisco (California), Portland (Oregon), Minneapolis (Minnesota), Chicago (Illinois), Washington (District of Columbia), and New York (New York); and two Canadian cities: Vancouver and Toronto. These case studies show an improvement in the coordination of bicycling and public transit in recent years, notably in increased bike parking at transit stops and better accommodations for passengers wanting to take their bikes with them on buses and rail vehicles. The authors conclude that although much progress has been made over the past decade in coordinating cycling with public transport, the demand for bike-and-ride far exceeds the supply of facilities in some cities. Additional funding is needed to provide more secure, sheltered bike parking at rail stations and to increase bike-carrying capacity on rail vehicles. A focus on bike-and-ride options is more cost-effective and environmentally friendly than additional park-and-ride facilities for cars.

Bikeway Networks: A Review of Effects on Cycling

Abstract Research linking bikeway infrastructure and cycling levels has increased significantly over the last 20 years — with the strongest growth since 2010. The research has evolved from the study of lanes and paths, to include analyses of the role of intersection treatments, and finally to studies that attempt to measure the whole bike network. Most studies suggest a positive relationship between bikeway networks or aspects of the network and cycling levels. Stated and revealed-preference studies suggest a hierarchy of cyclist and non-cyclist preferences may exist, favoring separate paths and/or lanes over cycling on roadways with traffic — particularly with high volumes of fast-moving motorized traffic. Revealed- and stated-route-choice studies indicate that intersections have negative effects on the cycling experience, but that certain features can offset this. The research correlating link and node characteristics to cycling implies that networks of such facilities would have positive effects, though very few empirical studies link complex measures of the network to cycling levels. In spite of an increase in studies and general agreement among findings, several important research gaps remain, including empirical studies using comprehensive network measures and studies of specific facility designs and new types of facilities (including intersection treatments). Improved research methods are necessary, including better sampling, longitudinal studies, greater geographic diversity, and incorporating more control variables, including policies.

Are Bikeshare Users Different from Regular Cyclists? A First Look at Short-Term Users, Annual Members, and Area Cyclists in the Washington, D.C., Region

In recent years, bikeshare systems have spread throughout the United States. Despite the increase in systems and users, little is known about how bikeshare member demographics and travel patterns compare with those of traditional bicyclists. To bridge the gap, this study investigated bikeshare system user travel behavior and developed a profile of user demographics through the comparison of short-term (1 day) users and annual members of Capital Bikeshare (CaBi) in Washington, D.C., with profiles of area bicyclists. Data originated from a Washington, D.C., regional household travel survey of 2007–2008, an intercept survey of short-term CaBi users, and an online survey of annual CaBi members. The analysis compared gender, race and ethnicity, age, and student status, as well as socioeconomic status across the surveys. The comparison included trip purpose, helmet use, and travel modes for trips that were replaced by bikesharing. Profiles of CaBi and area cyclists differed with respect to many demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Compared with area cyclists, CaBi short-term users and annual members were more likely to be female and younger, to have lower household incomes, and to own fewer cars and fewer bicycles and were more likely to cycle for utilitarian purposes. CaBi trips mainly replaced trips made by public transport and by walking. CaBi short-term users and members shared similar characteristics, but short-term users were more likely to ride for recreational purposes and were less likely to wear a helmet. The study results indicated that bikesharing can encourage new segments of society to cycle and can help increase the bicycling mode share overall.

Reducing car dependence in the heart of Europe: lessons from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland

ABSTRACT Munich, Berlin, Hamburg, Vienna, and Zurich – the largest cities in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland – have significantly reduced the car share of trips over the past 25 years in spite of high motorisation rates. The key to their success has been a coordinated package of mutually reinforcing transport and land-use policies that have made car use slower, less convenient, and more costly, while increasing the safety, convenience, and feasibility of walking, cycling, and public transport. The mix of policies implemented in each city has been somewhat different. The German cities have done far more to promote cycling, while Zurich and Vienna offer more public transport service per capita at lower fares. All five of the cities have implemented roughly the same policies to promote walking, foster compact mixed-use development, and discourage car use. Of the car-restrictive policies, parking management has been by far the most important. The five case study cities demonstrate that it is possible to reduce car dependence even in affluent societies with high levels of car ownership and high expectations for quality of travel.

Commuter mode choice and free car parking, public transportation benefits, showers/lockers, and bike parking at work: Evidence from the Washington, DC region

Municipalities and employers in the U.S. attempt to reduce commuting by automobile through commuter benefits for riding public transportation, walking, or cycling. Many employers provide a combination of benefits, often including free car parking alongside benefits for public transportation, walking, and cycling. This study evaluates the relationship between commuter benefits and mode choice for the commute to work using revealed preference data on 4,630 regular commuters, including information about free car parking, public transportation benefits, showers/lockers, and bike parking at work in the Washington, DC region. Multinomial logistic regression results show that free car parking at work is related to more driving. Commuters offered either public transportation benefits, showers/lockers, or bike parking, but no free car parking, are more likely to either ride public transportation, walk, or cycle to work. The joint provision of benefits for public transportation, walking, and cycling is related to an increased likelihood to commute by all three of these modes and a decreased likelihood of driving. However, the inclusion of free car parking in benefit packages alongside benefits for public transportation, walking, and cycling, seems tooffset the effect of these incentives. Benefits for public transportation, walking, and cycling, seem to work best when car parking is not free.

Travel Behavior in Aging Societies: Comparison of Germany and the United States

The number of older Americans is predicted to increase significantly over the next 30 years. Germany has already experienced a similar challenge over recent decades. In 2005, the share of population 65 years and older was 20% in that country, a share predicted for the United States around 2030. Both countries have among the highest motorization rates in the world, and almost all adults are licensed drivers. A comparison of the United States and Germany can provide important lessons about determinants of travel behavior of the elderly. This study traced changes in travel behavior over time in both countries using German national travel surveys from 1982 and 2002 and U.S. national travel surveys from 1983 and 2001. The study then investigated differences in determinants of travel behavior between the two countries through a multiple regression analysis based on the 2002 German travel survey and the 2001 U.S. travel survey. In both countries all social groups—but most markedly the elderly—were found to be more mobile today than 20 years ago. In both countries, travel behavior of 45 to 64 year olds in the early 1980s was a good predictor of travel behavior of 65+ year olds in 2001. Once travel behavior is adopted, it seems to carry on into older age. Besides similar trends in each country, elderly Americans were found to make more trips by car than Germans. This difference held even when controlling for socioeconomic and demographic factors and spatial development patterns. Transportation policies can help explain this difference. Compared with the United States, policies in Germany make car use more expensive and particularly more difficult in cities. At the same time, public policies make cycling and public transportation easy to use, cheap, safe, convenient, and accessible transportation alternatives for a less car-dependent lifestyle into old age.

Cycling towards a more sustainable transport future

As argued in our 2008 article “Making Cycling Irresistible”, cycling is probably the most sustainable urban transport mode, feasible not only for short trips but also for medium-distance trips too ...

Trends in walking and cycling safety: Recent evidence from high-income countries, with a focus on the United States and Germany

OBJECTIVES To examine changes in pedestrian and cyclist fatalities per capita (1990-2014) and per kilometer (2000-2010) in selected high-income countries, and in fatalities and serious injuries per kilometer by age in the United States and Germany (2001-2009). METHODS We used Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development data to estimate 5-year annual averages of per-capita fatalities relative to the 1990-1994 average. To control for exposure, we divided fatalities and serious injuries by kilometers of walking or cycling per year for countries with comparable data from national household travel surveys. RESULTS Most countries have reduced pedestrian and cyclist fatality rates per capita and per kilometer. The serious injuries data show smaller declines or even increases in rates per kilometer. There are large differences by age group in fatality and serious injury rates per kilometer, with seniors having the highest rates. The United States has much higher fatality and serious injury rates per kilometer than the other countries examined, and has made the least progress in reducing per-capita fatality rates. CONCLUSIONS The United States must greatly improve walking and cycling conditions. All countries should focus safety programs on seniors and children.