Ramón Mas

Intraplate deformation in the NW Iberian Chain: Mesozoic extension and Tertiary contractional inversion

The Iberian Chain developed within the Iberian plate during the Palaeogene and Early Miocene as a result of convergence between the African and Eurasian plates. It is a fold-and-thrust belt, which involves the Hercynian basement and the Mesozoic and Cenozoic cover. A generalized cross-section of the NW part of the Chain, of 195 km length, is presented. Mesozoic basins, developed on the Hercynian basement, display thickness variations across normal faults that bounded them and that can be recognized in the field. The Tertiary contraction deformed and inverted the Mesozoic basins, and it is inferred to have produced a thrust sheet about 5 km thick in its frontal (northeastern) part, which thickens to the SW. The total Tertiary shortening in the section is 66.6 km (26%). The structure and the crustal shortening and thickening of the Iberian Chain are explained by a major upper-crustal thrust system with simple flat-and-ramp geometry, which may branch to the Pyrenees or the Betics. This is combined with internal deformation of the thrust sheet. The contribution of the Iberian Chain shortening to the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Tertiary is about one-half of that of the Pyrenees, and should be taken into account in any reconstruction of the kinematics of these plates.

Sandstone Petrography of Continental Depositional Sequences of an Intraplate Rift Basin: Western Cameros Basin (North Spain)

The Cameros Basin in Central Spain is an intraplate rift basin that developed from Late Jurassic to Middle Albian time along NW–SE trending troughs. The sedimentary basin fill was deposited predominantly in continental environments and comprises several depositional sequences. These sequences consist of fluvial sandstones that commonly pass upward into lacustrine deposits at the top, producing considerable repetition of facies. This study focused on the western sector of the basin, where a total of seven depositional sequences (DS- 1 to DS-7) have been identified. The composition of sandstones permits the characterization of each sequence in terms of both clastic constituents and provenance. In addition, four main petrofacies are identified. Petrofacies A is quartzosedimentolithic (mean of Qm85F2Lt13) and records erosion of marine Jurassic pre-rift cover during deposition of fluvial deposits of DS-1 (Brezales Formation). Petrofacies B is quartzofeldspathic (mean of Qm81F14Lt5) with P/F > 1 at the base. This petrofacies was derived from the erosion of low- to medium-grade metamorphic terranes of the West Asturian–Leonese Zone of the Hesperian Massif during deposition of DS-2 (Jaramillo Formation) and DS-3 (Salcedal Formation). Quartzose sandstones characterize the top of DS-3 (mean of Qm92F4Lt4). Petrofacies C is quartzarenitic (mean of Qm95F3Lt2) with P/F > 1 and was produced by recycling of sedimentary cover (Triassic arkoses and carbonate rocks) in the SW part of the basin (DS-4, Pen˜ - acoba Formation). Finally, depositional sequences 5, 6, and 7 (Pinilla de los Moros–Hortiguela, Pantano, and Abejar–Castrillo de la Reina formations, respectively) contain petrofacies D. This petrofacies is quartzofeldspathic with P/F near zero and a very low concentration of metamorphic rock fragments (from Qm85F11Lt4 in Pantano Formation to Qm73F26Lt1 in Castrillo de la Reina Formation). Petrofacies D was generated by erosion of coarse crystalline plutonics located in the Central Iberian Zone of the Hesperian Massif. In addition to sandstone petrography, these provenance interpretations are supported by clay mineralogy of interbedded shales. Thus, shales related to petrofacies A and C have a variegated composition (illite, kaolinite, and randomly interlayered illite–smectite mixed-layer clays); the presence of chlorite characterizes interbedded shales from petrofacies B; and Illite and kaolinite are the dominant clays associated with petrofacies D. These petrofacies are consistent with the depositional sequences and their hierarchy. An early megacycle, consisting of petrofacies A and B (DS-1 to DS-3) was deposited during the initial stage of rifting, when troughs developed in the West Asturian–Leonese Zone. A second stage of rifting resulted in propagation of trough-bounding faults to the SW, involving the Central Iberian Zone as a source terrane and producing a second megacycle consisting of petrofacies C and D (DS-4, DS-5, DS-6, and DS-7). Sandstone composition has proven to be a powerful tool in basin analysis and related tectonic inferences on intraplate rift basins because of the close correlation that exists between depositional sequences and petrofacies.

The evolution of the Middle Triassic (Muschelkalk) carbonate ramp in the SE Iberian Ranges, eastern Spain: sequence stratigraphy, dolomitization processes and dynamic controls

Abstract The Upper Permian—Triassic strata of the SE Iberian Ranges, eastern Spain, display the classic Germanic-type facies of Buntsandstein, Muschelkalk and Keuper. The Muschelkalk is represented by two carbonate units with a siliciclastic-evaporitic unit in between. Their ages range from Anisian to basal Carnian (Middle Triassic to base of the Upper Triassic). The carbonate units represent ramps that evolved during the early thermal subsidence period which succeeded the first rift phase. Seven facies have been distinguished, representing shoals, tidal flats, organic buildups and lagoons, as well as a karst horizon in the lower carbonatic unit. Most of the carbonates were dolomitised. Three processes of dolomitization are invoked: mixing waters, penecontemporaneous seepage refluxion, and deep burial. The top of the Buntsandstein and the Muschelkalk facies are subdivided into two depositional sequences, including lowstand, transgressive and highstand systems tracts, with superimposed tectonic and eustatic controls.

Discrimination of Multiple Episodes of Meteoric Diagenesis in a Kimmeridgian Reefal Complex, North Iberian Range, Spain

ABSTRACT Stratigraphic relations, detailed petrography, and fine-scale geochemical and isotopic analysis of diagenetic phases formed within Kimmeridgian-age reefal carbonates of the Torrecilla en Cameros Formation of Northern Iberian Ranges in Spain indicate a complex history of alteration in marine, meteoric, burial, and uplift-related settings. The reefal succession is separated from the overlying Tithonian-Berriasian fluvial and lacustrine continental deposits by a single unconformity, which is marked by brecciation and karstification. Nevertheless, a record of three distinct stages of alteration associated with this unconformity is preserved in the succession of calcite cements present within the reefal carbonates. Recognition of temporally distinct episodes of meteoric diagenesis associated with a single unconformity is atypical in carbonate rocks, but this study illustrates how such complex systems can be deconvoluted. The first episode of subaerial exposure and meteoric alteration resulted in neomorphism of marine allochems and precipitation of a first generation of nonferroan clear calcite (NFC) cement. Following local faulting and brecciation, a second NFC precipitated throughout the reefal unit. Although similar in petrographic character, this phase of cementation is distinct in its isotopic composition, reflecting changes in the regional climate of the Iberian Peninsula during the early Tithonian. Another phase of meteoric alteration of the reefal unit is recorded by renewed corrosion, including dissolution of preexisting calcite cements and precipitation of prismatic calcite, prior to the deposition of Tithonian-Berriasian lacustrine and continental sediments. These continental units, in turn, record yet another episode of alteration by meteoric waters as NFC cements formed within intragranular and dissolution porosity in the lacustrine limestones. Notably, these cements are also distinct on the basis of their petrographic and geochemical character. Following subsidence and burial during Aptian to late Cretaceous times, migration of regionally derived fluids (perhaps in response to the onset of tectonic deformation to the north) led to cementation of saddle ankerite and ferroan calcite throughout the sedimentary sequence. Alteration of these burial-related diagenetic phases has subsequently taken place in response to the regional uplift during the Tertiary. This final episode of meteoric alteration is indicated by replacement of the ferroan calcite and ankerite by a cloudy nonferroan calcite.

Uncertainties in the stratigraphic analysis of fluvial deposits from the Loranca Basin, central Spain

Abstract A detailed stratigraphic and sedimentological analysis is given of Late Oligocene to Early Miocene continental sediments in a small area (1 km2) of the Loranca Basin (Province of Cuenca). The studied exposure is a part of the Tortola fluvial fan and mainly consists of superimposed meander belt sediments. The ages of base and top of the sedimentary succession were obtained by a combination of biostratigraphic and palaeomagnetic data, thus allowing us to estimate the mean sedimentation rates of the section (10 cm/ka). Our estimation of the sediment accumulation rate based on the analysis of palaeosols (18 cm/ka) appears to be reasonably reliable for short-term accumulation rates. The small size of palaeochannels and the relatively wide basin section may have allowed the development of a distributary fluvial system and may have caused the low vertical recurrence of relatively episodic sedimentation. The time interval covered by the sediments studied shows a progressive trend toward drier conditions and higher temperatures, inferred from qualitative and quantitative changes in fossil rodent faunas. These trends coincide with a gradual decrease of maximum values of estimated discharge of our fluvial systems. In these sediments it is dangerous to establish a correlation between the detected possible climatic changes and Milankovitch cycles. This is due to the low sedimentation rate and the frequent discontinuities in our stratigraphic record.

Tectono-stratigraphic evolution of an inverted extensional basin: the Cameros Basin (north of Spain)

Abstract The Cameros Basin is a part of the Mesozoic Iberian Rift. It is an extensional basin formed during the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous, in the Mesozoic Iberian Rift context, and it was inverted in the Cenozoic as a result of the Alpine contraction. This work aims to reconstruct the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the basin during the Mesozoic, using new and revised field, geophysical and subsurface data. The construction of a basin-wide balanced section with partial restorations herein offers new insights into the geometry of the syn-rift deposits. Field data, seismic lines and oil well data were used to identify the main structures of the basin and the basin-forming mechanisms. Mapping and cross-sectional data indicate the marked thickness variation of the depositional sequences across the basin, suggesting that the extension of the depositional area varied during the syn-rift stage and that the depocentres migrated towards the north. From field observation and seismic line interpretation, an onlap of the depositional sequences to the north, over the marine Jurassic substratum, can be deduced. In the last few decades, the structure and geometry of the basin have been strongly debated. The structure and geometry of the basin infill reconstructed herein strongly support the interpretation of the Cameros Basin as an extensional-ramp synclinal basin formed on a blind south-dipping extensional ramp. The gradual hanging-wall displacement to the south shifted the depocentres to the north over time, thus increasing the basin in size northwards, with onlap geometry on the pre-rift substratum. The basin was inverted by means of a main thrust located in a detachment located in the Upper Triassic beds (Keuper), which branched in depth with the Mesozoic extensional fault flat. The reconstruction of the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the Cameros Basin proposed herein represents a synthesis and an integration of previous studies of the structure and geometry of the basin. This study can be used as the basis for future basin-scale research and for modelling the ancient petroleum system of the basin.

Sand provenance and implications for paleodrainage in a rifted basin: the Tera Group (N. Spain)

Fluvial-fan and fluvial siliciclastic strata, developed during the rifting that generated the Cameros Basin (North Spain), record important provenance changes that reveal source areas compositions and locations, paleodrainage evolution and rift patterns. The Tera Group represents the first rifting stage in the Cameros Basin, containing fluvial-fan sediments at the lower part of the sedimentary fill that evolve to fluvial and lacustrine systems in the upper part of the record. Our quantitative sandstone petrographic analysis evidences the presence of three main petrofacies related closely to the rift basin evolution. At the base of the sedimentary succession, Petrofacies 1 (quartzolithic) indicates that the fluvial-fans source areas included Juras¬sic marine carbonates and older siliciclastic Mesozoic units, as well as metamorphic supplies from the West Asturian Leonese Zone (WALZ). Variscan basement sources of this metamorphic area (WALZ) were more abundant in the upper fluvial record (Petrofacies 2, quartzofeldspathic). Further, the influence of plutonic source areas with a mixed potassic and calcium-sodium composition is also recorded, probably related to the Central Iberian Zone (CIZ). In addition, a local sedimentary input was active during the fluvial and lacustrine stages (Petrofacies 2 and 3, both quartzofeldspathic), as a function of the palaeogeographical position of the Jurassic marine rocks and the level of erosion reached. Plutonic rock fragments have not been observed in the Tera Group sandstones of the western part of the basin. Thus, deeper erosion of the basement in the eastern Cameros Basin is suggested. The provenance evolution from quartzolithic to quartzofeldspathic petrofacies registered in Tera Group siliciclastic deposits is due to the higher influence of transversal supplies during the fluvial-fan stage (quartzolithic) to more important axial inputs during the fluvial stage (quartzofeldspathic). This provenance change represents the evolution from an undissected rift shoulder stage to more advanced stages of rifting (dissected rift shoulder) and during the beginning of a provenance cycle in a rifted basin.

The influence of the provenance of arenite on its diagenesis in the Cameros Rift Basin (Spain)

Abstract The intraplate Cameros Rift Basin in northern Spain, which has sediments some 6500 m thick, developed between the Late Jurassic and Early Albian. Its facies and their distribution in the sedimentary record suggest the basin may contain hydrocarbon systems. The arenite composition of the basin reveals two main petrofacies: (1) a quartzolithic petrofacies, the provenance of which is related to recycling processes that took place in the pre-rift sedimentary cover; and (2) a quartzofeldspathic petrofacies mainly related to the erosion of a plutonic and metamorphic source of arenite. The succession of these petrofacies reflects two main cycles representing the progressive erosion of their sources, one of 10 Ma, the other of 30 Ma. Such succession is typical of a non-volcanic rift basin. The quartzolithic petrofacies shows early carbonate cements that inhibited compaction and later quartz, feldspar and clay mineral diagenetic phases. The quartzofeldspathic petrofacies has a rigid framework that maintained the original pores of the arenite during burial diagenesis. Quartz and K-feldspar overgrowths are common, with secondary porosity occurring as a product of feldspar dissolution. The quartzofeldspathic petrofacies has a greater potential to act as a hydrocarbon reservoir. This study corroborates the close relationship between the provenance of arenite and its reservoir potential in continental rift basins.

Record of very high energy events in Plio-Pleistocene marine deposits of the Gulf of Cadiz (SW Spain): facies and processes

The depositional conditions that characterized the sedimentary filling in the southern sector of the Guadalquivir Basin during the late post-orogenic Neogene have been established through the sedimentological study of the Plio-Pleistocene outcrops along the Cadiz coast (SW Spain). The study has contributed to a better interpretation of the regional stratigraphy and helped to establish both depositional mechanisms and processes. Deposits show different lithofacies according to the dominant climatic and prevailing environmental conditions. Pliocene deposits show bioclastic lithofacies with abundant warm-water fossils, whereas Pleistocene sediments have a low fossil content. Stratigraphic sections indicate important depositional changes: sandstone and grainstone were deposited under a seasonal regime, whereas accumulations of large boulders and bioclasts are interpreted as event deposits, the product of episodic oceanographic processes, such as huge storms or tsunamis. These deposits do not have a seasonal character; however, given their relative frequency in the stratigraphic sections, they were probably associated with neo-tectonic activity in the Guadalquivir Foreland Basin, which was an important controlling factor in this basin. The proximity to the Africa-Eurasia plate boundary together with several historically documented earthquakes and tsunamis in the study area, suggest that these processes could explain the origin of these deposits. The seismic-tectonic activity was more intense between the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene, as shown by the presence of a well-marked angular unconformity, as well as by a higher frequency of the very high energy clastic and bioclastic accumulations.

Easily altered minerals and reequilibrated fluid inclusions provide extensive records of fluid and thermal history: gypsum pseudomorphs of the Tera Group, Tithonian-Berriasian, Cameros Basin

This study reports a complex fluid and thermal history using petrography, electron microprobe, isotopic analysis and fluid inclusions in replacement minerals within gypsum pseudomorphs in Tithonian-Berriasian lacustrine deposits in Northern Spain. Limestones and dolostones, formed in the alkaline lakes, contain lenticularly shaped gypsum pseudomorphs, considered to form in an evaporative lake. The gypsum was replaced by quartz and non-ferroan calcite (Ca-2), which partially replaces the quartz. Quartz contains solid inclusions of a preexisting non-ferroan calcite (Ca-1), anhydrite and celestine.High homogenization temperatures (Th) values and inconsistent thermometric behaviour within secondary fluid inclusion assemblages in quartz (147–351°C) and calcite (108–352°C) indicate high temperatures after precipitation and entrapment of lower temperature FIAs. Th are in the same range as other reequilibrated fluid inclusions from quartz veins in the same area that are related to Cretaceous hydrothermalism.Gypsum was replaced by anhydrite, likely during early burial. Later, anhydrite was partially replaced by Ca-1 associated with intermediate burial temperatures. Afterward, both anhydrite and Ca-1 were partially replaced by quartz and this by Ca-2. All were affected during higher temperature hydrothermalism and a CO2-H2O fluid. Progressive heating and hydrothermal pulses, involving a CO2-H2O fluid, produce the reequilibration of the FIAs, which was followed by uplift and cooling.