Ramón Suárez

Effect of mould inoculation on formation of chunky graphite in heavy section spheroidal graphite cast iron parts

Abstract The manufacturing process of heavy section ductile iron castings is strongly influenced by the risk of graphite degeneration under slow cooling rates. Appearance of this kind of defect is commonly linked to significant reductions in the mechanical properties of large castings. Studies on the effect of inoculation on chunky graphite formation in heavy sections have led to contradictory results in the literature and this triggered the present work. New experimental data are presented on the effect of mould inoculation on chunky graphite appearance during solidification of nodular irons which clearly demonstrate that mould inoculation increases the risk of chunky graphite formation in heavy sections. This is in agreement with some previous works which are reviewed, and it is suggested that the contradiction with other results could relate to the fact that these latter works dealt with chill casting.

Effect of alloying on mechanical properties of as cast ferritic nodular cast irons

Abstract The development of low temperature applications for ferritic nodular cast irons calls for improved materials in the as cast state, e.g. for off-shore windmills components. Within this line of work, a series of 68 castings were prepared with the same casting procedure and slight changes in composition. The tensile properties at room temperature, as well as the impact energy for rupture at room temperature, −20°C and −40°C, were measured. Outputs from multivariate analysis performed on the data are then discussed and compared to literature results, putting emphasis on the properties of the ferritic matrix.

Effect of Selected Alloying Elements on Mechanical Properties of Pearlitic Nodular Cast Irons

There is a continuous demand for low-cost nodular cast irons with improved mechanical properties, this being an industrial requirement both for pearlitic as well as for ferritic grades. Developments in pearlitic nodular irons should lead to alloys with higher and higher strength while retaining some ductility in the as-cast state so as to respond to demands related to castings for high power automotive engines in competition with steel castings and ADI. According to these aims, several alloying elements have been selected and added separately or combined to standard commercial nodular cast irons. In all cases, only low-level additions were made and their effects on the microstructure and mechanical properties at room temperature have been characterized and are discussed. A statistical analysis has been performed on the data obtained that accounts for changes in alloying additions as well as for variations in process parameters.

Kinetics of graphite expansion during eutectic solidification of cast iron

Abstract The paper introduces a new linear displacement analysis (LDA)/thermal analysis (TA) experimental device for measuring linear displacement during the solidification of cast iron. The experimental device comprises a sand mould encased in a steel shell that prevents mould wall movements. Thus, only the linear displacement caused by the shrinkage or expansion of the metal is recorded by the transducers. Two quartz rods introduced directly at different heights into the liquid metal and connected to two transducers record the linear displacement during the liquid–solid transformation and subsequent cooling. Two thermocouples positioned at the same height with the quartz rods allow for the concomitant TA and LDA and thus for the direct correlation between expansion/contraction and the temperature change during solidification events such as graphite formation. The LDA device was used to study the differences in the solidification mechanisms of irons with different graphite morphologies (lamellar, compacted/vermicular and spheroidal) at carbon equivalent in the range of 3·7–4·4%. The analysis included the LDA and TA curves and full metallographic characterisation of the cast irons. In general, graphite expansion increased as the graphite shape changed from lamellar, to compacted and then to spheroidal. The most important process variables are the magnesium and carbon contents. Higher Mg residual and C in the iron produced more graphite expansion. Compacted graphite (CG) iron was particularly sensitive to the Mg residual. Indeed, the high Mg CG irons exhibited similar graphite expansion to that of spheroidal graphite (SG) iron, while the low Mg CG iron expansion was closer to that of the lamellar graphite (LG) iron. Graphite expansion increased for all data with the time interval over which graphite expansion occurred. It also increased with both carbon and carbon equivalent. The time for graphite expansion increased noticeably with the carbon content of the iron. It did not depend on the graphite shape. By combining TA and LDA, it was possible to plot the evolution of graphite expansion as a function of the fraction solid and thus to understand the kinetics of graphite expansion. The amount of expansion available at the end of solidification was quantified. Such data, when correlated with process variables, will be useful in decreasing microshrinkage and in producing riserless compacted and SG irons.

Effect of Carbon Equivalent on Graphite Formation in Heavy-Section Ductile Iron Parts

The influence of post-inoculation and of cerium and antimony additions on the solidification process and on the formation of chunky graphite in ductile iron heavy-section parts have been studied previously in the case of near-eutectic alloys. It appeared of interest to complement these works by analysing the effect of carbon equivalent on graphite degeneracy. In the present work, hypo-, hyper- and near-eutectic melts have been cast in large blocks and standard cups. Analysis of the corresponding cooling curves recorded during solidification as well as microstructure observations on these casts have been carried out. A clear effect of carbon equivalent as promoter of chunky graphite formation is observed. The results have been added to the set of data already available and various correlations are discussed.

Understanding compacted graphite iron solidification through interrupted solidification experiments

While the manufacture of compacted graphite (CG) iron castings has seen significant expansion over the recent years, the growth of CG during iron solidification is still not fully understood. In this work, effort was expanded to experimentally reveal the evolution of graphite shape during early solidification and its relationship to the solid fraction. To this purpose, interrupted solidification experiments were carried out on hypereutectic irons with three magnesium levels. The graphite shape factors were measured and analysed as a function of chemical composition and solid fraction. Scanning electron microscopy was carried out to establish the fraction of solid at which the transition from spheroidal graphite (SG) to CG occurs. It was confirmed that solidification started with the development of SG for all CG irons. The SG-to-CG transition was considered to occur when the SG developed a tail (tadpole graphite). The findings were integrated in previous knowledge to attempt an understanding of the solidification of CG iron.

Microstructure Investigation of Small-Section Nodular Iron Castings with Chunky Graphite

Parameters that affect chunky graphite formation in heavy-section castings have been studied in previous works which showed that inoculation and cerium addition both increase the tendency for this degenerate graphite. This suggested that laboratory study on chunky graphite formation could be performed on small castings by over-treating the melt. Though the role of silicon was not ascertained, it appeared of potential interest to also investigate its effect in relation with the carbon equivalent of the iron and the nucleation potential of the melt. Keel-blocks were thus cast using Ce or Ce-Mg treated melts, with increased silicon content (up to 4.0 wt.%) and inoculation rate as compared to usual practice. It was observed that chunky graphite systematically appeared in more or less extended areas centred on the upper part of the keel-blocks. The as-cast microstructure (graphite shape and distribution) has then been studied in relation to melt composition and additions (Ce treatment and inoculation) in both affected and non-affected areas. Finally, microanalysis of oxides and other minor phases showed them to be similar to those appearing in heavy-section castings. It may then be concluded that chunky graphite appears in light-section castings in the same way than in heavy-section castings when using over-treated melts.

Influence of 1 wt-% addition of Ni on structural and mechanical properties of ferritic ductile irons

Abstract Two sets of ductile irons with and without Ni additions containing various low Si contents have been prepared in order to study the effect of Ni on structural and mechanical properties of thermal analysis cups and standard keel blocks. Because contradictory results appearing in literature, this work has been focused on the influence of this element on matrix structure and on impact properties at room temperature as well as at low temperatures. The structures of Ni free and Ni bearing alloys have been related to the features of cooling curves recorded on both casting types and to the tensile and impact properties of the materials.

Effect of antimony on the eutectic reaction of heavy section spheroidal graphite castings

Abstract There is a strong demand for heavy section castings made of spheroidal graphite with a fully ferritic matrix, e.g. for manufacturing hubs for windmills. Such castings with slow solidification process are prone to graphite degeneration that leads to a dramatic decrease of the mechanical properties of the cast parts. Chunky graphite is certainly the most difficult case of graphite degeneracy, though it has long been known that the limited and controlled addition of antimony may help eliminate it. The drawback of this remedy is that too large Sb additions lead to other forms of degenerate graphite, and also that antimony is a pearlite promoter. As part of an investigation aimed at mastering low level additions to cast iron melts before casting, solidification of large blocks with or without Sb added was followed by thermal analysis. Comparison of the cooling curves and of the microstructures of these different castings gives suggestions to understand the controlling nucleation and growth mechanisms for chunky graphite cells.

Kinetics of Nucleation and Growth of Graphite at Different Stages of Solidification for Spheroidal Graphite Iron

The importance of the nucleation and growth phenomena that controls the solidification of castings on the mechanical properties and soundness of cast iron cannot be overemphasized. The graphite nucleation mechanism is directly related to the carbon content of the iron and the inoculation treatment. To further understand these phenomena, interrupted solidification experiments were conducted on spheroidal graphite irons at three different levels of carbon equivalent (4.0, 4.2, 4.4), with and without the addition of a commercial inoculant. A detailed scanning electron microscopy investigation was carried out to analyze and quantify the possible nucleation sites at different solid fractions, as well as the influence of the inoculant in their formation. Thermodynamic software was used to evaluate the probability of formation of the compounds. A detailed discussion on the differences in nucleation of graphite between the beginning and end of solidification is provided.