Ramona T. Mercer

The process of maternal role attainment over the first year.

A study of the process of maternal role attainment in three age groups (15 to 19 years, 20 to 29 years, and 30 to 42 years) over the first year of motherhood found that the role attainment behaviors of feelings of love for the baby, gratification in the maternal role, observed maternal behavior, and self-reported ways of handling irritating child behaviors did not show a positive linear increase over the year. Behaviors peaked at 4 months postbirth, but declined at 8 months. Interview data suggested that the challenges of the infants developmental behaviors at 8 and 12 months contributed to feelings of role incompetency. Although age groups functioned at different levels, their patterns of behaviors over the year did not vary, except for gratification in the role, indicating that the maternal role presented similar challenges for all women. There were no significant differences by maternal age in role strain or self-image as a mother over the year.

Comparison of primiparas' perceptions of vaginal and cesarean births.

Twenty primiparous mothers who had cesarean births were compared with 30 primiparous mothers who had vaginal deliveries to determine differences in their perceptions of the birth experience. The effect of general versus regional anesthesia on the satisfaction level of the cesarean mothers was also investigated. All subjects were between 20 and 32 years of age, were interviewed within 48 hours postpartum, and completed a 29-item questionnaire that measures maternal perceptions about the labor and delivery experience. Satisfaction with the birth experience was significantly lower among cesarean mothers and among those who had general anesthesia. The cesarean group displayed greater hesitancy in naming their infants and tended to view their deliveries as abnormal and having social stigma. The presence of a support person in the operating room for a cesarean birth seemed to lessen anxiety among these mothers. These findings suggest that a cesarean birth has a negative impact on the mothers perceptions of her labor and delivery experience. There is a need for further study of factors that can enhance this experience for families.

Stress and social support as predictors of anxiety and depression during pregnancy.

Four groups, 153 high-risk women, 75 high-risk mates, 218 low-risk women, and 147 low-risk mates, were studied during the 24th to 34th weeks of pregnancy. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to study the effect of stress, social support (perceived, received, and network size), self-esteem, and mastery on anxiety and depression. These variables predicted 26.25% of anxiety among low-risk women, 44.70% among low-risk mates, 10.04% among high-risk women, and 16.00% among high-risk mates. Prediction of depression was better for all groups except high-risk mates (15.50%); 31.93% of the variance in low-risk womens depression was predicted, with 51.91% for low-risk mates and 29.63% for high-risk women. Neither received support nor network size entered the regression models for any of the groups.

Predictors of maternal role competence by risk status.

One hundred twenty-one high-risk women (HRW) and 182 low-risk women (LRW) were studied at postpartal hospitalization and at 1, 4, and 8 months after giving birth to determine whether they would differ in the achievement of perceived maternal competence and whether predictors of maternal competence would differ for the two groups over time. No significant differences were found in the maternal role competence of HRW and LRW or in the trajectory of change over time. Maternal role competence increased at 4 and 8 months over earlier levels. Selected variables explained from 33% to 52% of HRWs maternal competence and from 29% to 51% of LRWs maternal competence over the four test periods. Self-esteem and mastery were consistent predictors of maternal competence for both groups. Fetal attachment was a predictor of competence among HRW only.

Relationship of psychosocial and perinatal variables to perception of childbirth.

This study reported on a sample of 294 first-time mothers. Fifty-six women who delivered by cesarean birth perceived their childbirth experience more negatively than those who delivered vaginally. However, the type of delivery accounted for only 1% of the variance when entered with 24 other psychosocial and obstetrical variables for stepwise multiple regression analysis. Mate emotional support contributed 20% and early maternal-infant interaction contributed 9.8% of the variance, with total positive self-concept, fewer medical complications, informative support, instrumental support, and type of delivery accounting for the remainder of the total 39%.

Predictors of role competence for experienced and inexperienced fathers.

Paternal competence was compared for 79 experienced fathers (one or more children) and 93 inexperienced (first-time) fathers at early postpartum, 1, 4, and 8 months following birth. No differences in paternal competence by previous experience in the father role were found at any test period, nor did the trajectories of change differ between the two groups. Paternal competence means at 4 and 8 months did not differ, but were significantly higher than 1-month means. During the 8-month period, 30% to 61% of the variance in experienced mens paternal competence was explained; the range for inexperienced men was 31% to 49%. Depression was a major predictor for experienced fathers at 1, 4, and 8 months; partner relationships were predictive at 1 and 4 months. Sense of mastery and family functioning were consistent predictors for inexperienced fathers, who also reported greater anxiety and depression than experienced fathers at 4 and 8 months after birth.

Effect of stress on family functioning during pregnancy.

A theoretical model hypothesized to predict family functioning was tested in four groups of expectant parents, followed by exploratory model building. The groups studied during the 24th to 34th weeks of pregnancy included 153 high-risk hospitalized women, 75 of their partners, 218 low-risk women from the general obstetric clinic, and 147 of their partners. Both partners in the high-risk situation reported greater discrepancy in family functioning than partners in the low-risk situation. The hypothesized models proved to have low explanatory power, accounting for 13% to 15% of the variance. The final empirical models developed explained 33% of the variance in family functioning among high-risk women and 48% among their partners, 23% among low-risk women, and 32% among their partners. The empirical models differed from the hypothesized models in that variables postulated to have only indirect effects were shown to have direct effects on family function and inter-generational variables significantly expanded the theoretical model.

Theoretical Models for Studying the Effect of Antepartum Stress on the Family

Three models are proposed to predict the effect of antepartum stress on the family. These models consider external and internal family environments and individual characteristics as they influence an individual family members health status, dyadic relationships within the family, and the familys functioning as a unit. Research to date validates the complex interrelationships between antepartum stress, social support, self-esteem, sense of mastery, anxiety, depression, and their effect on health status, dyadic relationships, and family functioning. The theoretical models presented identify relationships between these important variables that can guide much-needed research on the effects of antepartum stress on the childbearing family.

The Epistemology of Expectant Parenthood

A secondary analysis of information obtainedfrom 288 interviews, conducted with 62 childbearing couples in the course of a qualitative and longitudinal study, suggests that much of the work of expectant parenthood is oriented toward getting to know the fetus. This article emphasizes the epistemological (as opposed to the emotional) relationship between parent and fetus.

Adolescent motherhood: Comparison of outcome with older mothers

The purpose of this study was to determine whether there were differences in maternal role attainment behaviors for three age groups (15-19, 20-29, 30-42 years) of 294 first-time mothers over a 1-year period. Interviews and questionnaires were completed at early postpartum, 1, 4, 8, and 12 months. Findings are in agreement with more recent research that the health status of adolescent mothers and their infants does not differ greatly from that of older mothers during the first year of motherhood. The adolescents infants growth and development were not handicapped. There were no group differences in feelings of love for the infant. The adolescent mother consistently scored lower than older mothers on observed and self-rated maternal competency behaviors. The adolescent mother derived greater gratification in the mothering role than older mothers through 8 months; at 12 months, the 20-29-year-old mother scored higher in gratification. The help received from the adolescents mother declined at 8 and 12 months suggesting an increased need for social support from other sources at this time.