Rasheda Khanam

The Effectiveness of Respondent Driven Sampling for Recruiting Males Who have Sex with Males in Dhaka, Bangladesh

This paper evaluates the effectiveness of respondent driven sampling (RDS) to sample males who have sex with males (MSM) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. A major objective for conducting this survey was to determine whether RDS can be a viable sampling method for future routine serologic and behavioral surveillance of MSM as well as other socially networked, hard to reach populations in Bangladesh. We assessed the feasibility of RDS (survey duration; MSM social network properties; number and types of initial recruits) to recruit a diverse group of MSM, the efficacy of an innovative technique (systematic coupon reduction) to manage the implementation and completion of the RDS recruitment process and reasons why MSM participated or did not participate. The findings provide useful information for improving RDS field techniques and demonstrate that RDS is an effective sampling method for recruiting diverse groups of MSM to participate in HIV related serologic and behavioral surveys in Dhaka.

Can facility delivery reduce the risk of intrapartum complications-related perinatal mortality? Findings from a cohort study

Background Intrapartum complications increase the risk of perinatal deaths. However, population-based data from developing countries assessing the contribution of intrapartum complications to perinatal deaths is scarce. Methods Using data from a cohort of pregnant women followed between 2011 and 2013 in Bangladesh, this study examined the rate and types of intrapartum complications, the association of intrapartum complications with perinatal mortality, and if facility delivery modified the risk of intrapartum-related perinatal deaths. Trained community health workers (CHWs) made two-monthly home visits to identify pregnant women, visited them twice during pregnancy and 10 times in the first two months postpartum. During prenatal visits, CHWs collected data on women’s prior obstetric history, socio-demographic status, and complications during pregnancy. They collected data on intrapartum complications, delivery care, and pregnancy outcome during the first postnatal visit within 7 days of delivery. We examined the association of intrapartum complications and facility delivery with perinatal mortality by estimating odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) adjusting for covariates using multivariable logistic regression analysis. Results The overall facility delivery rate was low (3922/24 271; 16.2%). Any intrapartum complications among pregnant women were 20.9% (5,061/24,271) and perinatal mortality was 64.7 per 1000 birth. Compared to women who delivered at home, the risk of perinatal mortality was 2.4 times higher (OR = 2.40; 95% CI = 2.08-2.76) when delivered in a public health facility and 1.3 times higher (OR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.06-1.64) when delivered in a private health facility. Compared to women who had no intrapartum complications and delivered at home, women with intrapartum complications who delivered at home had a substantially higher risk of perinatal mortality (OR = 3.45; 95% CI = 3.04-3.91). Compared to women with intrapartum complications who delivered at home, the risk of perinatal mortality among women with intrapartum complications was 43.0% lower for women who delivered in a public health facility (OR = 0.57; 95% CI = 0.42-0.78) and 58.0% lower when delivered in a private health facility (OR = 0.42; 95% CI = 0.28-0.63). Conclusions Maternal health programs need to promote timely recognition of intrapartum complications and delivery in health facilities to improve perinatal outcomes, particularly in populations where overall facility delivery rates are low. The differential risk between public and private health facilities may be due to differences in quality of care. Efforts should be made to improve the quality of care in all health facilities.

Antepartum complications and perinatal mortality in rural Bangladesh

BackgroundDespite impressive improvements in maternal survival throughout the world, rates of antepartum complications remain high. These conditions also contribute to high rates of perinatal deaths, which include stillbirths and early neonatal deaths, but the extent is not well studied. This study examines patterns of antepartum complications and the risk of perinatal deaths associated with such complications in rural Bangladesh.MethodsWe used data on self-reported antepartum complications during the last pregnancy and corresponding pregnancy outcomes from a household survey (N = 6,285 women) conducted in Sylhet district, Bangladesh in 2006. We created three binary outcome variables (stillbirths, early neonatal deaths, and perinatal deaths) and three binary exposure variables indicating antepartum complications, which were antepartum hemorrhage (APH), probable infection (PI), and probable pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH). We then examined patterns of antepartum complications and calculated incidence rate ratios (IRR) to estimate the associated risks of perinatal mortality using Poisson regression analyses. We calculated population attributable fraction (PAF) for the three antepartum complications to estimate potential risk reductions of perinatal mortality associated them.ResultsWe identified 356 perinatal deaths (195 stillbirths and 161 early neonatal deaths). The highest risk of perinatal death was associated with APH (IRR = 3.5, 95% CI: 2.4–4.9 for perinatal deaths; IRR = 3.7, 95% CI 2.3–5.9 for stillbirths; IRR = 3.5, 95% CI 2.0–6.1 for early neonatal deaths). Pregnancy-induced hypertension was a significant risk factor for stillbirths (IRR = 1.8, 95% CI 1.3–2.5), while PI was a significant risk factor for early neonatal deaths (IRR = 1.5, 95% CI 1.1–2.2). Population attributable fraction of APH and PIH were 6.8% and 10.4% for perinatal mortality and 7.5% and 14.7% for stillbirths respectively. Population attributable fraction of early neonatal mortality due to APH was 6.2% and for PI was 7.8%.ConclusionsIdentifying antepartum complications and ensuring access to adequate care for those complications are one of the key strategies in reducing perinatal mortality in settings where most deliveries occur at home.

Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Bangladesh (2014 Update)

Rasheda Khanam, Dilruba Ahmed, Mustafizur Rahman, M. S. Alam, Mausumi Amin, Sharful Islam Khan, Kenneth H. Mayer, Tasnim Azim International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh; International Center for Maternal and Newborn Health, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Save the Children, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Fenway Institute, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA

Impact of integrating a postpartum family planning program into a community-based maternal and newborn health program on birth spacing and preterm birth in rural Bangladesh

Background Short birth intervals are associated with an increased risk of adverse perinatal outcomes. However, reduction of rates of short birth intervals is challenging in low-resource settings where majority of the women deliver at home with limited access to family planning services immediately after delivery. This study examines the feasibility of integrating a post-partum family planning intervention package within a community-based maternal and newborn health intervention package, and evaluates the impact of integration on reduction of rates of short birth intervals and preterm births. Methods In a quasi-experimental trial design, unions with an average population of about 25 000 and a first level health facility were allocated to an intervention arm (n = 4) to receive integrated post-partum family planning and maternal and newborn health (PPFP-MNH) interventions, or to a control arm (n = 4) to receive the MNH interventions only. Trained community health workers were the primary outreach service providers in both study arms. The primary outcomes of interest were birth spacing and preterm births. We also examined if there were any unintended consequences of integration. Results At baseline, short birth intervals of less than 24 months and preterm birth rates were similar among women in the intervention and control arms. Integrating PPFP into the MNH intervention package did not negatively influence maternal and neonatal outcomes; during the intervention period, there was no difference in community health workers’ home visit coverage or neonatal care practices between the two study arms. Compared to the control arm, women in the intervention arm had a 19% lower risk of short birth interval (adjusted relative risk (RR) = 0.81, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.69-0.95) and 21% lower risk of preterm birth (adjusted RR = 0.79; 95% CI = 0.63-0.99). Conclusions Study findings demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of integrating PPFP interventions into a community based MNH intervention package. Thus, MNH programs should consider systematically integrating PPFP as a service component to improve pregnancy spacing and reduce the risk of preterm birth.

Effect of a package of integrated demand- and supply-side interventions on facility delivery rates in rural Bangladesh: Implications for large-scale programs

Background According to the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2014, only approximately 37 percent of women deliver in a health facility. Among the eight administrative divisions of Bangladesh, the facility delivery rate is lowest in the Sylhet division (22.6 percent) where we assessed the effect of integrated supply- and demand-side interventions on the facility-based delivery rate. Methods Population-based cohort data of pregnant women from an ongoing maternal and newborn health improvement study being conducted in a population of ~120,000 in Sylhet district were used. The study required collection and processing of biological samples immediately after delivery. Therefore, the project assembled various strategies to increase institutional delivery rates. The supply-side intervention included capacity expansion of the health facilities through service provider refresher training, 24/7 service coverage, additions of drugs and supplies, and incentives to the providers. The demand-side component involved financial incentives to cover expenses, a provision of emergency transport, and referral support to a tertiary-level hospital. We conducted a before-and-after observational study to assess the impact of the intervention in a total of 1,861 deliveries between December 2014 and November 2016. Results Overall, implementation of the intervention package was associated with 52.6 percentage point increase in the proportions of facility-based deliveries from a baseline rate of 25.0 percent to 77.6 percent in 24 months. We observed lower rates of institutional deliveries when only supply-side interventions were implemented. The proportion rose to 47.1 percent and continued increasing when the project emphasized addressing the financial barriers to accessing obstetric care in a health facility. Conclusions An integrated supply- and demand-side intervention was associated with a substantial increase in institutional delivery. The package can be tailored to identify which combination of interventions may produce the optimum result and be scaled. Rigorous implementation research studies are needed to draw confident conclusions and to provide information about the costs, feasibility for scale-up and sustainability.

Understanding biological mechanisms underlying adverse birth outcomes in developing countries: protocol for a prospective cohort (AMANHI bio–banking) study

Objectives The AMANHI study aims to seek for biomarkers as predictors of important pregnancy–related outcomes, and establish a biobank in developing countries for future research as new methods and technologies become available. Methods AMANHI is using harmonised protocols to enrol 3000 women in early pregnancies (8–19 weeks of gestation) for population–based follow–up in pregnancy up to 42 days postpartum in Bangladesh, Pakistan and Tanzania, with collection taking place between August 2014 and June 2016. Urine pregnancy tests will be used to confirm reported or suspected pregnancies for screening ultrasound by trained sonographers to accurately date the pregnancy. Trained study field workers will collect very detailed phenotypic and epidemiological data from the pregnant woman and her family at scheduled home visits during pregnancy (enrolment, 24–28 weeks, 32–36 weeks & 38+ weeks) and postpartum (days 0–6 or 42–60). Trained phlebotomists will collect maternal and umbilical blood samples, centrifuge and obtain aliquots of serum, plasma and the buffy coat for storage. They will also measure HbA1C and collect a dried spot sample of whole blood. Maternal urine samples will also be collected and stored, alongside placenta, umbilical cord tissue and membrane samples, which will both be frozen and prepared for histology examination. Maternal and newborn stool (for microbiota) as well as paternal and newborn saliva samples (for DNA extraction) will also be collected. All samples will be stored at –80°C in the biobank in each of the three sites. These samples will be linked to numerous epidemiological and phenotypic data with unique study identification numbers. Importance of the study AMANHI biobank proves that biobanking is feasible to implement in LMICs, but recognises that biobank creation is only the first step in addressing current global challenges.

Patterns and Determinants of Care-Seeking for Antepartum and Intrapartum Complications in Rural Bangladesh: Results from a Cohort Study.

Background The burden of maternal complications during antepartum and intrapartum periods is high and care seeking from a trained provider is low, particularly in low middle income countries of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Identification of barriers to access to trained care and development of strategies to address them will contribute to improvements in maternal health. Using data from a community-based cohort of pregnant women, this study identified the prevalence of antepartum and intrapartum complications and determinants of care-seeking for these complications in rural Bangladesh. Methods The study was conducted in 24,274 pregnant women between June 2011 and December 2013 in rural Sylhet district of Bangladesh. Women were interviewed during pregnancy to collect data on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics; prior miscarriages, stillbirths, live births, and neonatal deaths; as well as data on their ability to make decision to go to health center alone. They were interviewed within the first 7 days of child birth to collect data on self-reported antepartum and intrapartum complications and care seeking for those complications. Bivariate analysis was conducted to explore association between predisposing (socio-demographic), enabling (economic), perceived need, and service related factors with care-seeking for self-reported antepartum and intrapartum complications. Multivariable multinomial logistic regression was performed to examine the association of selected factors with care-seeking for self-reported antepartum and intrapartum complications adjusting for co-variates. Results Self-reported antepartum and intrapartum complications among women were 14.8% and 20.9% respectively. Among women with any antepartum complication, 58.9% sought care and of these 46.5% received care from a trained provider. Of the women with intrapartum complications, 61.4% sought care and of them 46.5% did so from a trained provider. Care-seeking for both antepartum and intrapartum complications from a trained provider was significantly higher for women with higher household wealth status, higher literacy level of both women and their husbands, and for those living close to a health facility (<10 km). Women’s decision making ability to go to health centre alone was associated with untrained care only for antepartum complications, but was associated with both trained and untrained care for intrapartum complications. Conclusions Nearly 40.0% of the women who experienced either an antepartum or intrapartum complications did not seek care from any provider and 11.5% -14.9% received care from untrained providers, primarily because of economic and geographic barriers to access. Development and evaluation of context specific, cost-effective, and sustainable strategies that will address these barriers to access to care for the maternal complications will enhance care seeking from trained health care providers and improve maternal health.

Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine impact assessment in Bangladesh

The study examines the impact of the introduction of 10-valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV10) into Bangladesh’s national vaccine program. PCV10 is administered to children under 1 year-old; the scheduled ages of administration are at 6, 10, and 18 weeks. The study is conducted in ~770,000 population containing ~90,000 <5 children in Sylhet, Bangladesh and has five objectives: 1) To collect data on community-based pre-PCV incidence rates of invasive pneumococcal diseases (IPD) in 0-59 month-old children in Sylhet, Bangladesh; 2) To evaluate the effectiveness of PCV10 introduction on Vaccine Type (VT) IPD in 3-59 month-old children using an incident case-control study design. Secondary aims include measuring the effects of PCV10 introduction on all IPD in 3-59 month-old children using case-control study design, and quantifying the emergence of Non Vaccine Type IPD; 3) To evaluate the effectiveness of PCV10 introduction on chest radiograph-confirmed pneumonia in children 3-35 months old using incident case-control study design. We will estimate the incidence trend of clinical and radiologically-confirmed pneumonia in 3-35 month-old children in the study area before and after introduction of PCV10; 4) To determine the feasibility and utility of lung ultrasound for the diagnosis of pediatric pneumonia in a large sample of children in a resource-limited setting. We will also evaluate the effectiveness of PCV10 introduction on ultrasound-confirmed pneumonia in 3-35 month-old children using an incident case-control design and to examine the incidence trend of ultrasound-confirmed pneumonia in 3-35 month-old children in the study area before and after PCV10 introduction; and 5) To determine the direct and indirect effects of vaccination status on nasopharyngeal colonization on VT pneumococci among children with pneumonia . This paper presents the methodology. The study will allow us to conduct a comprehensive and robust assessment of the impact of national introduction of PCV10 on pneumococcal disease in Bangladesh.

Maternal short stature and under-weight status are independent risk factors for preterm birth and small for gestational age in rural Bangladesh

Background/objectivesTo estimate the risks of term-small for gestational age (SGA), preterm-appropriate for gestational age (AGA), and preterm SGA associated with maternal height and body mass index (BMI) and to calculate the population attributable fractions (PAF) of term SGA, preterm AGA, and preterm SGA associated with maternal short stature.Subjects/methodsA population-based cohort of 13,230 women with pre-pregnancy height and weight followed from 2012 to 2016 in Sylhet, Bangladesh. We analyzed data of 2655 singleton live born infants. The babies born <37 weeks of gestation were considered preterm and weight <10th percentile of Intergrowth sex-specific gestational age were considered SGA. Risk factors for term SGA, preterm AGA, and preterm SGA were examined using multinomial logistic regression that estimated relative risk ratios (RRR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).ResultsMaternal short stature <145 cm was significantly associated with term SGA (RRR 1.88, 95% CI 1.37, 2.58; p < 0.001), preterm AGA (RRR 1.45, 95% CI 1.02, 2.05; p < 0.05), and preterm SGA (RRR 14.40, 95% CI 1.82, 113.85; p < 0.05). Maternal underweight status (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2) was significant predictor of term SGA (RRR 1.32, 95% CI 1.10, 1.59; p < 0.01), and preterm AGA (RRR 1.39, 95% CI 1.12, 1.71; p < 0.01). PAF for maternal short stature were 23.2, 7.3, and 73.9% for term SGA, preterm AGA, and preterm SGA, respectively.ConclusionsTo address the problem of undernutrition, Bangladesh needs to strengthen implementation of its multi-sectoral nutrition program comprising nutrition specific and sensitive interventions. Implementation of the program with high coverage and quality would improve maternal nutrition and perinatal outcomes including preterm births and SGA.