Ravinder Jerath

Self-Regulation of Breathing as a Primary Treatment for Anxiety

Understanding the autonomic nervous system and homeostatic changes associated with emotions remains a major challenge for neuroscientists and a fundamental prerequisite to treat anxiety, stress, and emotional disorders. Based on recent publications, the inter-relationship between respiration and emotions and the influence of respiration on autonomic changes, and subsequent widespread membrane potential changes resulting from changes in homeostasis are discussed. We hypothesize that reversing homeostatic alterations with meditation and breathing techniques rather than targeting neurotransmitters with medication may be a superior method to address the whole body changes that occur in stress, anxiety, and depression. Detrimental effects of stress, negative emotions, and sympathetic dominance of the autonomic nervous system have been shown to be counteracted by different forms of meditation, relaxation, and breathing techniques. We propose that these breathing techniques could be used as first-line and supplemental treatments for stress, anxiety, depression, and some emotional disorders.

Mechanism of development of pre-eclampsia linking breathing disorders to endothelial dysfunction

High blood pressure is an important component of pre-eclampsia. The underlying mechanism of development of hypertension in pre-eclampsia is complicated and still remains obscure. Several theories have been advanced including endothelial dysfunction, uteroplacental insufficiency leading to generalized vasoconstriction, increased cardiac output, and sympathetic hyperactivity. Increased blood flow and pressure are thought to lead to capillary dilatation, which damages end-organ sites, leading to hypertension, proteinuria and edema. Additional theories have been put forward based on epidemiological research, implicating immunological and genetic factors. None of these theories have been substantiated. Based on a review of literature this paper postulates that the initiating event for the development of pre-eclampsia is intermittent hypoxia associated with irregular breathing during sleep, hypoapnea, apnea, inadequate respiratory excursions during the waking hours and inadequate cardiopulmonary synchronization (abnormal sympatho-vagal balance).

Role of cardiorespiratory synchronization and sleep physiology: effects on membrane potential in the restorative functions of sleep

Although sleep physiology has been extensively studied, many of the cellular processes that occur during sleep and the functional significance of sleep remain unclear. The degree of cardiorespiratory synchronization during sleep increases during the progression of slow-wave sleep (SWS). Autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity also assumes a pattern that correlates with the progression of sleep. The ANS is an integral part of physiologic processes that occur during sleep with the respective contribution of parasympathetic and sympathetic activity varying between different sleep stages. In our paper, we attempt to unify the activities of various physiologic systems, namely the cardiac, respiratory, ANS and brain, during sleep into a consolidated picture with particular attention to the membrane potential of neurons. In our unified model, we explore the potential of sleep to promote restorative processes in the brain.

Dynamic Change of Awareness during Meditation Techniques: Neural and Physiological Correlates.

Recent findings illustrate how changes in consciousness accommodated by neural correlates and plasticity of the brain advance a model of perceptual change as a function of meditative practice. During the mind-body response neural correlates of changing awareness illustrate how the autonomic nervous system shifts from a sympathetic dominant to a parasympathetic dominant state. Expansion of awareness during the practice of meditation techniques can be linked to the Default Mode Network (DMN), a network of brain regions that is active when the one is not focused on the outside world and the brain is restful yet awake (Chen et al., 2008). A model is presented illustrating the dynamic mind-body response before and after mindfulness meditation, and connections are made with prefrontal cortex activity, the cardiac and respiratory center, the thalamus and amygdala, the DMN and cortical function connectivity. The default status of the DMN changes corresponding to autonomic modulation resulting from meditation practice.

Layers of human brain activity: a functional model based on the default mode network and slow oscillations.

The complex activity of the human brain makes it difficult to get a big picture of how the brain works and functions as the mind. We examine pertinent studies, as well as evolutionary and embryologic evidence to support our theoretical model consisting of separate but interactive layers of human neural activity. The most basic layer involves default mode network (DMN) activity and cardiorespiratory oscillations. We propose that these oscillations support other neural activity and cognitive processes. The second layer involves limbic system activity accompanied by corresponding changes in cardiorespiratory oscillations. The third layer consists of corticothalamic processing and involves higher cortical functions including awareness, cognition, and consciousness. These layers interact to form the complex neural activity of the human brain. Examining the origins and relationships of various neural and physiologic oscillations may provide better understanding of human neurophysiology and consciousness.

Neural correlates of visuospatial consciousness in 3D default space: Insights from contralateral neglect syndrome

One of the most compelling questions still unanswered in neuroscience is how consciousness arises. In this article, we examine visual processing, the parietal lobe, and contralateral neglect syndrome as a window into consciousness and how the brain functions as the mind and we introduce a mechanism for the processing of visual information and its role in consciousness. We propose that consciousness arises from integration of information from throughout the body and brain by the thalamus and that the thalamus reimages visual and other sensory information from throughout the cortex in a default three-dimensional space in the mind. We further suggest that the thalamus generates a dynamic default three-dimensional space by integrating processed information from corticothalamic feedback loops, creating an infrastructure that may form the basis of our consciousness. Further experimental evidence is needed to examine and support this hypothesis, the role of the thalamus, and to further elucidate the mechanism of consciousness.

A unified 3D default space consciousness model combining neurological and physiological processes that underlie conscious experience.

The Global Workspace Theory and Information Integration Theory are two of the most currently accepted consciousness models; however, these models do not address many aspects of conscious experience. We compare these models to our previously proposed consciousness model in which the thalamus fills-in processed sensory information from corticothalamic feedback loops within a proposed 3D default space, resulting in the recreation of the internal and external worlds within the mind. This 3D default space is composed of all cells of the body, which communicate via gap junctions and electrical potentials to create this unified space. We use 3D illustrations to explain how both visual and non-visual sensory information may be filled-in within this dynamic space, creating a unified seamless conscious experience. This neural sensory memory space is likely generated by baseline neural oscillatory activity from the default mode network, other salient networks, brainstem, and reticular activating system.

Widespread depolarization during expiration: A source of respiratory drive?

Respiration influences various pacemakers and rhythms of the body during inspiration and expiration but the underlying mechanisms are relatively unknown. Understanding this phenomenon is important, as breathing disorders, breath holding, and hyperventilation can lead to significant medical conditions. We discuss the physiological modulation of heart rhythm, blood pressure, sympathetic nerve activity, EEG, and other changes observed during inspiration and expiration. We also correlate the intracellular mitochondrial respiratory metabolic processes with real-time breathing and correlate membrane potential changes with inspiration and expiration. We propose that widespread minor hyperpolarization occurs during inspiration and widespread minor depolarization occurs during expiration. This depolarization is likely a source of respiratory drive. Further knowledge of intracellular and extracellular ionic changes associated with respiration will enhance ourunderstanding of respiration and its role as a modulator of cellular membrane potential. This could expand treatment options for a wide range of health conditions, such as breathing disorders, stress-related disorders, and further our understanding of the Hering-Breuer reflex and respiratory sinus arrhythmia.

Conceptual Advances in the Default Space Model of Consciousness

The default space model is a unified theory of consciousness that posits the brain and body together form the foundation of conscious experience that exists as a three dimensional internally generated simulation of reality termed the 3D dynamic default space. We have explored and developed the model in many publications and journals with a variety of academic specialties and its scope and concepts continue to broaden. In these publications, we have supported the concepts of the model through its ability to explain neuropsychological disorders, illusions, and everyday observations on consciousness. The model’s foundations in which the thalamus serves as a central hub networked with the brain and body by continuous, fast, membrane potential oscillations have been greatly expanded since its initial publication which we review within this article. Profound leaps forward in our theory include the nature of lateral inhibition in sensory perception, the nature of sensory organs acting as “smart screens”, and the correlation of respiration with mental atmosphere. Through reviewing the developing concepts expanding the theory since our major 2015 publication that laid the foundation of our theory, we hope to give readers a summarized update of where the theory currently stands in terms of its structure. We encourage readers to investigate these previous publications to gain further insight into our propositions. Through accurate models of consciousness, we may develop etiologies for countless neurological disorders, as well as improve treatments.

Central Pain Syndrome: Etiological Perspectives from the 3D Default Space Model of Consciousness

In this article, the mechanisms of central pain syndrome (CPS) are examined for the purpose of gaining insight into how a unified conscious experience arises from brain and body interaction. We provide a novel etiology for CPS via implementation of the previously proposed 3D Default Space (3DDS) consciousness model in which consciousness and body schema arise when afferent information is processed by corticothalamic feedback loops and integrated via the thalamus. Further, we propose the mechanisms by which CPS represents deficits in dynamic interactions between afferent and efferent signaling. Modern hypotheses of CPS suggest roles for maladaptive neuroplasticity, a deafferentated somatosensory cortex and/or thalamus, and reorganization along the sensory pathways of the spinothalamic tract in the pathogenesis of the painful sensations. We propose that CPS arises when painful sensory signals originating along the maladapted and/or dysfunctional spinothalamic tract become accentuated by the dominant top down mechanisms of the brain.