Ravindra Jain

Entrepreneurial Competencies A Meta-analysis and Comprehensive Conceptualization for Future Research

Despite numerous research studies the theme of ‘Why, when and how some people (entrepreneurs) and not others discover, evaluate and exploit entrepreneurial opportunities?’ still needs intensive inquiry. Entrepreneurial performance is influenced by both intrinsic individual and extrinsic environment factors. Earlier research indicates that a wide range of motives, personal traits, psychological characteristics and self-efficacy components influence the attitudes, intentions and behaviours of entrepreneurs. However, despite existence of favourable factors, a potential entrepreneur might decide not to exploit entrepreneurial opportunity; certain people act differently from others in exactly the same situation. Earlier researchers, while using a variety of lenses, suggested a variety of frameworks and countless propositions. Despite, the unified, comprehensive, and largely acceptable conceptualizations could not be evolved so far. In such a situation, more efforts in the direction of making an extensive review or meta-analysis and developing a more unified conceptualization are required. Here, a genuine attempt has been made to synthesize the outcomes of the surfeit of earlier researches so as to present the emerging hypothesized propositions and a simple framework of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial competencies. The outcomes of such an attempt provide a concrete base for more meaningful and useful further research as well as for setting up an agenda of entrepreneurial training for the future.

Conceptualization, Measure Development and Empirical Assessment of Career Oriented Attitudes and Employability of Technology Graduates

The present study is an attempt to develop a theoretical framework of career oriented attitudes (COAs) and employability of technology graduates from Indian institutions and also to develop scales to measure the same. Secondly, in this study, (a) the existing levels of such attitudes (viz., career-task involvement, career-goal sensitivity, career-purpose social networking and career-linked self-efficacy) and competitive strength for employability (CSEMP) have been measured and (b) the impact of such career oriented attitudes on competitive strength for employability of those graduates has been assessed. The two scales were administered to 222 technology graduates from three different segments of selected technology institutions. Career-purpose social networking was found very strong and the other three attitudes as well as CSEMP were found strong among the technology graduates. Correlation analysis shows that all the four attitudes are correlated with each other and regression analysis reveals that such attitudes have positive impact on Competitive Strength for Employability of the Indian technology graduates. The theoretical framework presented in this article and the measures developed for COAs and CSEMP are significant value addition to the body of knowledge in the organization and management area.

Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Marketing Orientation and Attitude Orientation of Indian Entrepreneurs

The present article assesses the level of entrepreneurial self-efficacy beliefs (ESE beliefs), entrepreneurial marketing orientation (EMO) and entrepreneurial attitude orientation (EAO) of Indian entrepreneurs as well as to examine inter-relationships between these variables. ESE beliefs and EAO were found to be moderately favourable whereas EMO was found to be highly favourable. All the three predictors, namely, ESE Beliefs, EMO and EAO were found to be positively correlated to one another. Almost all the components of the three predictors were also found to have moderate or low degree of positive correlation with one another. Regression analysis revealed that the three predictors had a significant impact on a venture’s performance. The results are quite consistent with the findings of earlier research. Correlation analysis and regression analysis clearly indicated that the hypothesised model that had been proposed for the study has been found fit and hence, can be used to make broader generalisations.

ICT Education and Training Services: Current Scenario and Future Prospects in India

In the current decade, there has been a tremendous growth of ICT & ITES industry worldwide and India has an impressive presence in the world trade of ICT & ITES. Indian ICT industry is a fast growing industry in terms of its annual growth in production, domestic market share, export, offshore outsourcing and investment. As a result, Indian ICT industry requires a large number of well-qualified and well-trained ICT professionals of all categories. However, a huge gap between the demand and supply of manpower currently exists. In order to narrow down such a gap, ICT education & training system needs to play a crucial role. Further, looking at the worldwide considerable growth of ICT/ITES demand, ICT training may be considered as a potential area to which India can diversify largely and where ICT can leverage to gain competitive edge over its overseas rivals. Though, India has all round favourable climate; system maturity and wide network for ICT education & training; however, such a system suffers from the deficiencies like insufficient investment by the concerned stakeholders, shortage of competent core faculty, little collaboration between academics and user-industries, infrequently up-gradation of course-curriculum, focus on mass higher education with less consideration to quality, liberal evaluation of the academic institutions for quality accreditation, lack of initiatives on the part of the Indian corporates and institutional climate dominated by the dependency motive. This paper presents current status of ICT industry as well as of ICT education & training (E & T) system incorporating the issues mentioned above. It also gives future projections regarding the same, overviews the practices pertaining to E & T in ICT, indicates towards the deficiencies in the said system & practices. Finally, the paper ends with a few suggestions that are relevant for system improvement.

Institutional Climate Audit from Communication Perspective with Reference to the Select IT Institutions: An Empirical Study

A favourable institutional climate not only shapes personality traits, positive attitudes and abilities related to creative intelligence but it also profoundly affects their behaviours. The following are the key characteristics of favourable institutional climate: An open culture where effective communication in all directions is ensured; a live environment where open-ended activities are going-on with the active involvement of both students and faculty; an encouraging milieu in which creativity and innovativeness flourish; a positive atmosphere in which informal interaction, collaboration for mutual development and experimentation for learning is promoted; a learning climate in which opportunities for the students to have mutually satisfying interactions with the relevant experts and practicing professionals are available; and a favourable setting where learning is reinforced by the system and practice of active reception, supportive feedback and timely appreciation of favourable results. In order to check to what extent the climates in the selected IT institutions incorporate such characteristics therein, the present empirical study had been carried out and ended with the finding of by and large moderate degree of such climates prevail in the selected institutions.

Entrepreneurial and Intrapreneurial Attitudes: Conceptualization, Measure Development, Measure Test and Model Fit

The extant literature recognized the significance of attitudes in understanding an entrepreneur/intrapreneur. The present study contributes to the value addition in the extant literature in the form of developing and validating standard measures and models of entrepreneurial attitudes (EA)/intrapreneurial attitudes (IA). Our models suggest that the six attitudes, namely, achievement orientation, risk-taking propensity, internal locus of control, innovativeness, pro-activeness and market orientation (MO), have a positive impact on venture performance of both entrepreneurs and intrapreneurs. Our well-tested models and the measures of EA/IA attitudes provide a concrete foundation for future research studies of EA/IA across the historical, temporal, institutional, spatial, social and cultural contexts.

Personal Characteristics of Indian Entrepreneurs and Intrapreneurs

The present study examined the psychological characteristics of the entrepreneurs and intrapreneurs in terms of six variables, namely, achievement orientation, innovativeness, internal locus of control, risk-taking propensity, proactiveness and self-efficacy, and such an examination was also done with reference to the following five demographic features: gender, education level, family background, work experience and age range of the entrepreneurs/intrapreneurs. The study was carried out with sample survey of 134 entrepreneurs (owner–managers) and 116 intrapreneurs (corporate managers) belonging to various service provider enterprises of India. All the psychological characteristics (except ‘risk-taking propensity’) were found as moderately positive in case of both male and female entrepreneurs and intrapreneurs without significant variation. The risk-taking propensity was perceived as ‘less positive’ by the entrepreneurs and it was found to be significantly higher for female intrapreneurs as compared to that of male intrapreneurs. The entrepreneurs belonging to business family background were found significantly better than the entrepreneurs belonging to rest of the backgrounds (namely, farming, service in private company and service in public/government organization) with regard to the characteristics like achievement orientation, innovativeness, internal locus of control and risk-taking propensity. In the matter of ‘risk-taking propensity’ of intrapreneurs, those from private sector service families were found to be better than intrapreneurs from farming and business families. In the matter of ‘self-efficacy’, intrapreneurs belonging to private service background were found to be better than intrapreneurs belonging to background of public/government service. Post-graduate entrepreneurs were found to be better in achievement orientation than others; non-graduate entrepreneurs were found more proactive than others; and non-graduates were found more innovative than post-graduates. Post-graduate intrapreneurs were found better in risk-taking propensity than graduates, as well as they were found better in achievement orientation than non-graduates; whereas self-efficacy of non-graduates was found better than that of graduates and non-graduates. Comparatively, younger entrepreneurs were found more proactive than others; and those in their middle ages were found to have high locus of control and risk-taking propensity than others. Middle-aged intrapreneurs were found comparatively better in internal locus of control than those who were relatively younger and relatively elder. All those who were elder (40 years and above) were found to be more proactive than those who were relatively younger. Those who were younger (for example, 25–30 years) were found to have less achievement orientation than rest of the intrapreneurs. There is no significant impact of work experience of the entrepreneurs and intrapreneurs found on their psychological characteristics (except on the proactiveness of the intrapreneurs). Age, gender and family background were found as important predictors in discriminating between the two groups of entrepreneurs—one with low level and other with moderate level of such characteristics. But, in case of intrapreneurs, the discriminant analysis has shown dissimilar results. The results of the study do not match fully with the findings of earlier research, and hence the research on personal characteristics of the entrepreneurs and intrapreneurs appeared to be inconclusive.

Integrated Framework of Antecedents and Effects of Market Orientation

Earlier research concerning market orientation-related issues focuses on conceptualization of market orientation and its ingredients; various antecedents of market orientation; and impact of market orientation on firm’s entrepreneurial orientation, strategies, innovativeness and performance. This article is a descriptive and qualitative review of earlier research concerning all these issues. It also discusses the mediators and moderators that affect relationship between market orientation and firm’s performance. This article provides the holistic picture of what it means to be market oriented, what needs to be done to be better in market orientation and how market orientation affects firm’s performance. The article summarizes the propositions that emerged from the extensive review of literature, followed by the presentation of a proposed integrated framework of antecedents and effects of market orientation with its likely implications. These propositions and the proposed integrated framework provide a concrete base for carrying out future research studies. Thus, this article is significant value addition to the body of knowledge. Review of earlier research established that there exists a positive, significant and robust link between market orientation and firm performance. The review also indicates that market orientation has positive associations with an organization’s innovativeness and orientation mediated by innovation creates superior performance of a firm. The review also states that in earlier research, it has been found that there exists a close association between market orientation and entrepreneurial orientation as well as between market orientation and marketing planning/operational marketing strategies. Developing and improving on a firm’s market orientation may make a firm’s capabilities become more distinctive over the long run, resulting in sustainable competitive advantage.

Creative Abilities of Indian Managers and Blocks to Creativity Enhancement

In the globalized arena, managers need to play a great variety of roles and in order to be effective performers on such roles, they need to sharpen their creative abilities as well as maintain the various blocks thereto at low level. A preliminary step is to make an assessment of existing state of the strengths and weaknesses regarding the same. As independent investigators, the authors initiated such an assessment with reference to managerial personnel in the selected Indian organizations. The generalized findings of such an assessment will provide some direction to the organizations and their managers for the formulation/re-formulation of appropriate strategies so as to develop creative abilities within themselves. In the present study, creative abilities of the managerial personnel, by and large, have been found at high level. Such a high level of creative abilities is also because blocks to creative personality were found only at moderate level (not at high level). Such a climate favours the initiation and promotion of creativity and innovation. The study also revealed that managerial personnel need to improve their creative abilities in terms of ‘sensitivity’ and ‘entrepreneurship’. The managerial personnel of the selected organizations have perceived themselves as having greater level of ‘allergy to ambiguity’ and they also perceived the other studied blocks to creative personality as having at moderate level (desirably not at low level) which may appear as barriers in the process of nurturing creative abilities and promoting innovation capabilities in the given set-up. Organizations are complex social, political and technical systems and there is no simplistic formula for becoming more creative and innovative in practice.

Employee Creativity: A Conceptual Framework

The literature relevant to creativity is diverse in approach. As a result, there has been a lack of cohesive theoretical understanding of how employee creativity operates and gets affected in organizations. In the existing literature, we found a number of theoretical approaches of creativity that appear as supplementary and complementary to provide a better understanding of the creativity. However, employee creativity continues to appear as an elusive and complex phenomenon. Such observations trigger the authors’ interest to synthesize prior research and present the same in the form of a conceptual framework of employee creativity. On the basis of the results of extensive review of vast and varied literature, it is suggested that three individual characteristics, namely, personality traits & self-concepts, cognitive characteristics and motivational aspects, and four contextual characteristics, namely, super- visory and leadership behaviour, co-workers’ behaviour, job context and social network, have independent as well as combined or mediated effect on employee creativity.