Raymond A. Knight

Recidivism Rates Among Child Molesters and Rapists: A Methodological Analysis

We address the high variability in sex offender recidivism rates by examining several of the critical methodological differences that underlie this variability. We used a dataset on 251 sex offenders (136 rapists and 115 child molesters) who were discharged over a 25-year period to examine changes in recidivism as a function of changes in dispositional definition of reoffense (e.g., arrest or conviction), changes in the domain of criminal offenses that are considered, and changes in the length of exposure time. The data indicate that: (a) both rapists and child molesters remain at risk to reoffend long after their discharge, in some cases 15–20 years after discharge; (b) there was a marked underestimation of recidivism when calculating a simple proportion (%) consisting of those who were known to have reoffended during the follow-up period, and (c) there was a marked underestimation of recidivism when the criterion was based on conviction or imprisonment. Forensic, clinical and policy implications of this high variability are discussed.

Identifying critical dimensions for discriminating among rapists

Considerable evidence has amassed in studies of both nonoffender and offender samples that demonstrates both that sexual aggression is determined by a multiplicity of variables and that convicted sexual offenders are markedly heterogeneous (Knight, Rosenberg, & Schneider, 1985; Malamuth, 1986). Attempts both to identify sexually coercive men in normal samples and to assess etiology, concurrent adaptation, treatment efficacy, and recidivism for convicted sexually aggressive offenders have also suggested that the critical determining components of sexual aggression interact in complex ways. The purpose of this article is to survey both the offender and nonoffender sexual aggression research for evidence about which dimensions should be included in multivariate models that attempt to discriminate rapists from nonrapists, to identify subgroups among rapists, or to enhance the efficiency of dispositional decisions about these offenders. Language: en

A taxometric analysis of the latent structure of psychopathy: evidence for dimensionality.

The taxonomic status of psychopathy is controversial. Whereas some studies have found evidence that psychopathy, at least its antisocial component, is distributed as a taxon, others have found that both major components of psychopathy-callousness/unemotionality and impulsivity/antisocial behavior-appear to distribute as dimensions and show little evidence of taxonicity. In the present study, recent advances in taxometric analysis were added to P. Meehls (1995) multiple consistency tests strategy for assessing taxonicity, and they were applied to Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (R. D. Hare, 2003) ratings of 4,865 offenders sampled from multiple forensic settings. The results indicated that both the individual components of psychopathy and their interface are distributed dimensionally. Both the implications of these results for research in psychopathy and the integration of these findings with previous taxometric studies of psychopathy are discussed.

Classifying Sexual Offenders

Classification is a fundamental cognitive operation. From the first perceptual contact with stimuli (Pomerantz, 1986; Treisman, 1986) through the ultimate integration and storage of information in long-term memory (Rosch & Lloyd, 1978), the identification, organization, and integration of elements that share common characteristics has been shown to be an essential component of perception and cognition. The critical function of classification in scientific investigation mirrors its central role in general cognition. Phenomenalists, realists, and con-ceptualists, despite their diverse metaphysical perspectives, all recognize the vital role of classification in science (Ghiselin, 1981). It stands as a necessary precursor and pervasive sustainer of all scientific progress (Hempel, 1965).

The developmental antecedents of sexual coercion against women: testing alternative hypotheses with structural equation modeling.

Abstract: A unified model of the origin of sexual aggression against women on both adult and juvenile sexual offender samples has been developed and successfully tested. This model proposed three major causal paths to sexual coercion against women. In the first path, physical and verbal abuse was hypothesized to produce callousness and lack of emotionality, which disinhibited sexual drive and sexual fantasies. These in turn disinhibited hostile sexual fantasies, and led to sexual coercion. In the second causal path, sexual abuse contributed directly to the disinhibition of sexual drive and sexual fantasies, which through hostile sexual fantasies led to sexual coercion. The third path operated through early antisocial behavior, including aggressive acts. It developed as a result of both physical/verbal abuse and callousness/lack of emotion. It in turn directly affected sexual coercion and worked indirectly through the hostile sexual fantasies path. In the present study, the anonymous responses of a group of 168 blue‐collar, community males to an inventory (the Multidimensional Assessment of Sex and Aggression) were used in a structural equation model to test the validity of this model. Moreover, this model was pitted against Malamuths (1998) two‐path model. Whereas the three‐path model had an excellent fit with the data (CFI = .951, RMSEA = .047), the two‐path model fit less well (CFI = .857, RMSEA = .079). These results indicate the superiority of the three‐path model and suggest that it constitutes a solid, empirically disconfirmable heuristic for the etiology of sexual coercion against women.

Stimulus configuration and context effects in perceptual organization in schizophrenia.

Two studies assessed perceptual organization in schizophrenia to determine (a) whether inpatient and outpatient groups with poor premorbid schizophrenia have comparable levels of perceptual organization deficit; and (b) whether the deficit could be eliminated by task manipulations. In Study 1, inpatients demonstrated clear evidence of a perceptual organization deficit, whereas outpatients performed similarly to the control groups. In Study 2, a performance pattern that operationally defined a perceptual organization deficit was eliminated by a task manipulation thought to aid in context processing. The perceptual organization deficit is most pronounced in actively symptomatic patients with poor premorbid schizophrenia, and the deficit reflects, in part, deficient top-down influences to basic perceptual processes.

THE EFFICACY OF WOMEN'S RESISTANCE STRATEGIES IN RAPE SITUATIONS

The effectiveness of womens resistance strategies for reducing the severity of sexual abuse and physical injury during sexual assaults was analyzed in a variety of assault circumstances. Data were obtained from police reports and court testimonies of 274 women (96% White, 4% Black) who either were raped or avoided rape by subsequently incarcerated violent stranger rapists. Statistical analyses showed that particular resistance strategies were effective in specific situations. Women who fought back forcefully were more likely to avoid rape than women who did not fight back, regardless of whether a weapon was present. Forceful fighting resistance was related to increased physical injury when a weapon was present, but most physical injury was caused by nonlethal weapons. Women who screamed or fled when confronted with weapons experienced less severe sexual abuse. Increased physical injury was associated with pleading, crying, or reasoning indoors. Women who used drugs or alcohol experienced more severe sexual abuse and physical injury.

Incremental validity of the Psychopathy Checklist facet scores: Predicting release outcome in six samples.

The incremental validity of the 4 facet scores (Interpersonal, Affective, Lifestyle, Antisocial) of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; R. D. Hare, 1991, 2003) and the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV; S. D. Hart, D. N. Cox, & R. D. Hare, 1995) was evaluated in 6 forensic/correctional samples with average follow-ups ranging from 20 weeks to 10 years. Results indicated that whereas Facet 4 (Antisocial) achieved incremental validity relative to the first 3 facets (Interpersonal, Affective, and Lifestyle) in predicting recidivism in all 6 samples, a block of the first 3 facets achieved incremental validity relative to the 4th facet in only 1 sample. Thus, although there was consistent support for the incremental validity of Facet 4 above and beyond the first 3 facets, there was minimal support for the incremental validity of Facets 1, 2, and 3 above and beyond Facet 4. The implications of these findings for the psychopathy construct in general and the PCL-R/SV in particular are discussed.

Validation of a Typology for Rapists

The purpose of this article is to describe briefly the current status of a taxonomic program that was developed for studying rapists. An overview of the research strategies is provided, as well as a summary of some of the validity data that have been gathered on the most recent version of the rapist typology (the Massachusetts Treatment Center Rapist Typology, Version 3 [MTC:R3]). Moreover, several projects that have focused attention on the treatment implications of taxonomic systems have arisen. In addition, the author speculates on some treatment implications of the current taxonomic system. He compares the underlying dimensions of the current typology that have been identified as temporally stable, discriminating characteristics of various types of rapist with those behavioral domains that have emerged as targets in the treatment of both sexually aggressive and persistently violent offenders. This speculative comparison of dimensions and treatment targets provides an opportunity to hypothesize about possible interfaces between the taxonomy and therapeutic intervention.

A System for the Classification of Child Molesters Reliability and Application

Although descriptive studies have demonstrated that child molesters are heterogeneous on numerous variables (Knight, Rosenberg, & Schneider, 1985), no classification systems have been constructed that divide child molesters into reliable, cohesive subgroups. This critical gap in our knowledge hampers the efficacy of clinical decisions about the treatment, management, and disposition of these offenders. The child molester typology presented here has been developed to fulfill the need for a clearly operationalized, reliable, valid system to address the problem of the manifest diversity of these offenders. This typology is the product of a research program that has integrated both deductive/rational and inductive/empirical strategies for generating and testing taxonomic systems (Knight, 1988; Knight & Prentky, in press). We present here the criteria for applying this system and the interrater reliability coefficients for assigning a sample of committed offenders to these proposed types.