Raymond Jansen

Response of ground-dwelling spider assemblages (Arachnida, Araneae) to Montane Grassland management practices in South Africa

Frequent and extensive burning practices coupled with intensive grazing management are known to impact negatively on the vegetation diversity of grassland ecosystems. Few studies have investigated the impacts on spider diversity and community structure as a result of these management practices, and no studies have been conducted in high mountain grasslands on how these spider assemblages are influenced by this form of management. Here, we present the results of a study conducted in the Mpumalanga grasslands on the eastern escarpment of South Africa. Ground‐dwelling spiders were sampled in the summer season from 180 pit‐fall traps in five study sites that varied from either being burnt annually and grazed heavily, burnt biennially and conservatively grazed, to communal land with no set management practice. Variations between sites were assessed and based on spider species composition and assemblage structure. A total of 1145 individuals were collected representing 86 species from 60 genera and 43 families. Our results show that a majority of genera in these grasslands were represented by very few individuals, where a total of 37 species were represented by singletons and 17 species that were doubletons. The most abundant families were the Lycosidae (64.3%), Gnaphosidae (9.0%), Zodariidae (5.3%), Linyphiidae (4.7%) and Salticidae (3.1%). Grazing intensity and fire frequency had no measurable effect on ground‐dwelling spider abundance diversity or assemblage structure. Only when rare or single species occurrence was included, was there some form of association with sites. This study has provided for the first preliminary inventory of ground‐dwelling spiders for this habitat.

A Review of the Anthropogenic Threats Faced by Temminck's Ground Pangolin, Smutsia temminckii, in Southern Africa

Throughout its range, Temmincks ground pangolin, Smutsia temminckii, is becoming increasingly threatened, predominantly as a result of anthropogenic pressures. This species is currently listed as Vulnerable in South Africa and Least Concern globally, although many assessment criteria are data deficient and thus hamper an accurate assessment of its actual status. Current knowledge of the threats faced by Temmincks ground pangolin largely stem from a handful of ecological studies and ad hoc observations. Here we synthesize data on the known threats faced by this species in southern Africa and highlight a number of new threats not previously recognized. The main threats faced by this species include electrocution on electrified fences, the traditional medicine (muthi) trade, habitat loss, road mortalities, capture in gin traps, and potentially poisoning. Electrocutions arguably pose the greatest threat and mortality rates may be as high as one individual per 11 km of electrified fence per year. However, the magnitude of the threat posed by the muthi trade has not yet been quantified. Most southern African countries have adequate legislation protecting this species, although implementation is often lacking and in some instances the imposed penalties are unlikely to be a deterrent. We propose mitigating actions for many of the identified threats, although further research into the efficacy of these actions, and the development of additional mitigating procedures, is required.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Temminck's ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii; Smuts, 1832) and phylogenetic position of the Pholidota (Weber, 1904)

Temminckis ground pangolin is primarily a nocturnal mammal belonging to the order Pholidota. The body is covered in hard overlapping scales and these animals find refuge in burrows, feeding only on termites and ants. In this study, the whole mtDNA of Temminckis ground pangolin was sequenced and the phylogenetic position of Pholidota determined within Eutheria, using whole mtDNA sequences from various representative species. The results indicate that the whole mtDNA of Temminckis ground pangolin is 16,559 bp long and shared some similarities with the whole mtDNA of the back-bellied tree pangolin and the Chinese pangolin. Phylogenetic analysis indicate that the order Pholidota is closely related and share a recent common ancestor with the order Carnivora rather than with the ant/insect eating order Xenarthra and the group Afrotheria. A time measured phylogeny of Pholidota estimated a split from Carnivora at around 87 mya, followed by a split of the African pangolins from their Asian counterparts such as the Chinese pangolin at around 47 mya. This suggests a Laurasian origin and convergent evolution of the Pholidota with respect to Xenarthra and Afrotheria.

Knowledge and Uses of African Pangolins as a Source of Traditional Medicine in Ghana

Traditional medicine has been practised in Ghana for centuries with the majority of Ghanaians still patronising the services of traditional healers. Throughout Africa a large number of people use pangolins as a source of traditional medicine, however, there is a dearth of information on the use of animals in folk medicine in Ghana, in particular the use of pangolins. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalent use of pangolins and the level of knowledge of pangolin use among traditional healers in Ghana for the treatment of human ailments. Data was gathered from 48 traditional healers using semi-structured interviews on the traditional medicinal use of pangolin body parts in the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. The cultural importance index, relative frequency of citation, informant agreement ratio and use agreement values were calculated to ascertain the most culturally important pangolin body part as well as the level of knowledge dissemination among traditional healers with regards pangolin body parts. Our study revealed that 13 body parts of pangolins are used to treat various medicinal ailments. Pangolin scales and bones were the most prevalent prescribed body parts and indicated the highest cultural significance among traditional healing practices primarily for the treatment of spiritual protection, rheumatism, financial rituals and convulsions. Despite being classified under Schedule 1 of Ghana’s Wildlife Conservation Act of 1971 (LI 685), that prohibits anyone from hunting or being in possession of a pangolin, our results indicated that the use of pangolins for traditional medicinal purposes is widespread among traditional healers in Ghana. A study on the population status and ecology of the three species of African pangolins occurring in Ghana is urgently required in order to determine the impact this harvest for traditional medical purposes has on their respective populations as current levels appear to be unmonitored and unsustainable.

Age- and sex-based variation in helminth infection of helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris) with comments on Swainson's spurfowl (Pternistis swainsonii) and Orange River francolin (Scleroptila levaillantoides)

Abstract Gastrointestinal tracts from 48 helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris), five Swainsons spurfowl (Pternistis swainsonii) and a single Orange River francolin (Scleroptila levaillantoides) were examined for helminth parasites. Twelve species of helminths were found in helmeted guineafowl, comprising six nematodes, five cestodes and a single acanthocephalan. Six species of nematodes were recovered from Swainsons spurfowl and a single nematode was recovered from the Orange River francolin. First-year guineafowl had more than twice the intensity of infection than did adult guineafowl, particularly regarding the acanthocephalan Mediorhynchus gallinarum, the caecal nematodes Subulura dentigera and S. suctoria, and the cestodes Octopetalum numida, Hymenolepis cantaniana and Numidella numida. Female guineafowl had significantly higher intensities of infection than males, especially concerning M. gallinarum, S. dentigera and N. numida and the nematode Gongylonema congolense. The recovery of the cestode Retinometra sp. from helmeted guineafowl constitutes a new host-parasite record.

Forensic application of DNA barcoding for identification of illegally traded African pangolin scales

The escalating growth in illegal wildlife trade and anthropogenic habitat changes threaten the survival of pangolin species worldwide. All eight extant species have experienced drastic population size reductions globally with a high extinction risk in Asia. Consequently, forensic services have become critical for law enforcement, with a need for standardised and validated genetic methods for reliable identifications. The seizure of three tonnes of pangolin scales, believed to have originated from Africa, by Hong Kong Customs Authorities provided an opportunity for the application of DNA barcoding in identifying scales. Three mitochondrial DNA gene regions (COI, Cyt b, and D-loop) were amplified for a subsample of the confiscated material and compared with taxonomically verified references. All four African species were recovered as monophyletic with high interspecific uncorrected p-distance estimates (0.048-0.188) among genes. However, only three of four African species (Phataginus tricuspis, Phataginus tetradactyla, and Smutsia gigantea, originating from West and Central Africa) and one of four Asian species (Manis javanica from Southeast Asia) were identified among scales. Although the assignment of unknown scales to specific species was reliable, additional genetic tools and representative reference material are required to determine geographic origins of confiscated pangolin specimens.

Ethnomedicinal use of African pangolins by traditional medical practitioners in Sierra Leone

BackgroundPangolins (Manidae) have long been used for traditional medicinal purposes in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa. However, very little is known about the extent of this use, the body parts that are used and the ailments these practices are attempting to cure or alleviate. Pangolin body parts are used extensively and frequently by traditional medical practitioners in Sierra Leone.MethodsA total of 63 traditional medical practitioners consented and were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires on the traditional medicinal use of pangolin body parts. The use value, informant agreement ratio and use agreement value for each pangolin part was calculated to ascertain the most sought after body part, the level of knowledge dissemination among traditional medical practitioners about body parts and the most culturally significant body part.ResultsIt was found that 22 pangolin parts are used to treat various ailments and conditions under 17 international categories of diseases. The highest use value was recorded for scales while eyes had the highest level of consensus among the traditional medical practitioners. The highest use value and informant agreement ratio for scales were recorded for spiritual ailments. Scales were the most culturally significant body part according to the use agreement value.ConclusionThis study indicates a high importance value for pangolins as part of these communities’ spiritual, cultural and medicinal beliefs. However, the numbers of individuals harvested from the wild remains unknown and unregulated even though pangolins have been listed under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Conservation Act, 1972, of Sierra Leone, which prohibits any person from hunting or being in possession of pangolins. It is likely that this unregulated harvesting and poaching of this threatened species, for medicinal purposes, is unsustainable and there is an urgent need to determine pangolin population abundance within this region to ensure their sustainable harvesting for cultural use and conservation.

Mercury concentrations in eggshells of the Southern Ground-Hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri) and Wattled Crane (Bugeranus carunculatus) in South Africa

In this study, wild hatched eggshells were collected from the nests of threatened Wattled Crane and South Ground-Hornbill in an attempt to determine their total Hg concentrations. A total of fourteen eggshell samples from both bird species were collected from different study areas in the Mpumlanga and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces of South Africa. The eggshells were acid digested under reflux and their total Hg concentrations were determined using cold-vapour atomic absorption spectrophotometry (CV-AAS). The observed total Hg levels for the South Ground-Hornbill samples ranged from 1.31 to 8.88 µg g(-1) dry weight (dw), except for one outlier which had an elevated 75.0 µg g(-1) dw. The levels obtained for the Wattled Crane samples were relatively high and these ranged from 14.84 to 36.37 µg g(-1) dw. Generally, all the measured total Hg concentrations for the Wattled Crane samples exceeded the estimated total Hg levels derived for eggshell which were known to cause adverse reproductive effects in avian species from previous studies. Based on these findings, it is, therefore, possible that the exposure of these birds to elevated Hg may have contributed to their present population decline.

Relationship between breeding activity and rainfall for Swainson\'s Spurfowl, Pternistis swainsonii , within southern Africa, with specific reference to the Springbok Flats, Limpopo Province, South Africa

We collated the literature available on the breeding activity of the Swainsons Spurfowl Pternistis swainsonii and made use of reliable unpublished reports, nest record cards and field observations within the Springbok Flats, Limpopo Province, South Africa to establish breeding seasons and pairing behaviour. The onset of breeding (egg laying) is closely associated with rainfall, with male gonad development, population density and covey size (pairing behaviour), all correlated with rainfall. Peak breeding activity is from January–April in South Africa, February–May in Zimbabwe and March–June in Botswana. Egg laying has been recorded in all months and sporadic egg laying in the winter months is most likely the result of isolated rainfall. Mean clutch size is 5.2 eggs/hen (n = 140) with an incubation period of 23 days and brood hatching success and chick survival of 69.4% over the southern African sub-region. Current hunting seasons within Limpopo Province are in line with the recommended hunting season for this region and should remain unchanged: 15 June–30 September. The success of this phasianid can be attributed to its extended breeding season, high survival rate of hatchlings and the potential of birds to breed within their first year.

Predation drives nesting success in moist highland grasslands: the importance of maintaining vegetation cover for bird conservation

By focusing on process-oriented data rather than inventory-type data, this study provides a robust understanding of the effects of agricultural management on grassland bird reproductive output in the moist highland grasslands (MHGs) of South Africa. Four-hundred and four nests of 12 grassland-breeding bird species were monitored in five different land-use types. Survivorship was modelled using Program MARK to assess the effects of these management practices on reproductive performance. Six of the species were modelled individually to assess speciesspecific responses. Both nest-site selection and nest success were driven by vegetation structure, which in turn is driven by habitat management. There was an increase in nesting success through the season for cup (ground) nesting birds as vegetation structural complexity increased through the breeding season (September to March). Nest success was driven by predation pressure rather than food availability. Analysis of the nesting success of the Yellow-breasted Pipit Anthus chloris indicated that unconserved areas house sink populations, confirmation of which would depend on a measure of adult survival. The generalist African Pipit Anthus cinnamomeus, on the other hand, thrived in disturbed, communally grazed lands. To conserve MHG bird species, managers should maintain a mosaic of burning regimes, with the majority burning biennially or less frequently.