Raymond P. Perry

An attributional analysis of reactions to stigmas.

In two experiments, we examined the perceived controllability and stability of the causes of 10 stigmas. Guided by attribution theory, we also ascertained the affective reactions of pity and anger, helping judgments, and the efficacy of five intervention techniques. In the first study we found that physically based stigmas were perceived as onset-uncontrollable, and elicited pity, no anger, and judgments to help. On the other hand, mental-behavioral stigmas were perceived as onset-controllable, and elicited little pity, much anger, and judgments to neglect. In addition, physically based stigmas were perceived as stable, or irreversible, whereas mental-behavioral stigmas were generally considered unstable, or reversible. The perceived efficacy of disparate interventions was guided in part by beliefs about stigma stability. In the second study we manipulated perceptions of causal controllability. Attributional shifts resulted in changes in affective responses and behavioral judgments. However, attributional alteration was not equally possible for all the stigmas.

Beyond test anxiety: Development and validation of the test emotions questionnaire (TEQ)

Measures of test emotions other than test anxiety are lacking. In a series of six studies, we developed a multi-scale questionnaire assessing test-related joy, hope, pride, relief, anger, anxiety, shame, and hopelessness (Test Emotions Questionnaire, TEQ). Consisting of subscales measuring affective, cognitive, physiological, and motivational emotion components, the scales can be used to identify both trait and state test emotions, and are available in German- and English-language versions. Using a rational-empirical strategy of test construction, we first developed theoretical models of the component structures, antecedents, and effects of different test emotions. We then conducted two exploratory, qualitative studies on the occurrence and structures of these emotions. Finally, based on theory and our exploratory data, we constructed, analyzed, and revised the scales of the TEQ in four quantitative studies. Findings of correlational and confirmatory factor analysis indicate that the scales are reliable, structurally valid in terms of representing different test emotions and components within emotions, and externally valid in terms of correlating significantly with personality, learning, academic achievement, and perceived health problems. Many of these correlations proved to be stronger for test emotions other than anxiety, implying that test anxiety is neither the only relevant test emotion, nor necessarily the most important one.

Primary and secondary control in academic development: gender-specific implications for stress and health in college students

Abstract During the first year of college, students are faced with numerous educational and personal stressors which can negatively impact their psychological and physical health. The present study examined the benefits of primary and secondary control for self-rated health in students based on Rothbaum, Weisz, and Synders (1982) dual-process model of control, and examined stress and gender as potential mediating variables. College students’ (n=888) primary and secondary academic control and perceived stress were assessed in the first semester, and self-rated global health, illness symptoms, and illness-related behaviors were assessed at the end of the academic year. For males, primary control was indirectly related to better overall health and fewer symptoms through lower stress levels, and both primary and secondary control directly corresponded to lower illness behaviors. For females, only secondary control was related to better overall health and illness symptoms, albeit indirectly through reduced stress. The mediational roles of stress and gender in health research on primary/secondary control and potential control-enhancing interventions are discussed.

Control Striving in Older Adults With Serious Health Problems: A 9-Year Longitudinal Study of Survival, Health, and Well-Being

The present longitudinal study of 143 older adults (73-98 years) with serious health problems (arthritis, heart disease, heart attack, stroke) examined the effects of goal engagement, disengagement, and self-protection control strategies on self-rated physical health (condition severity, functional status) and subjective well-being (life satisfaction) at 5 years and survival at 9 years. Main effects and interactions between strategy use and the occurrence of an acute vascular event (no, yes) as well as age (young-old vs. old-old) were assessed. As hypothesized, goal engagement predicted greater survival for individuals with acute conditions but poorer physical health for those with chronic conditions and among old-old adults. In contrast, goal disengagement predicted poorer physical health for those with acute conditions but better health for individuals with chronic conditions and old-old adults. Self-protective strategies (positive reappraisal) predicted greater survival, health, and subjective well-being for those with acute conditions, as well as better physical health for old-old adults.

Primary and Secondary Control-Enhancing Strategies Implications for Health in Later Life

Objectives:The major goal of this article was to assess the link between controlenhancing strategies and health in an older population. In particular, the use of primarycontrol strategies, which involve modifying the environment (e.g., actively persisting) and compensatory secondary-control strategies, which involve modifying the self (e.g., expecting less of oneself) was studied. Methods:Participants (n= 241) in a large-scale longitudinal study were interviewed to assess their use of strategies and their health. Results:Health (physical and perceived) was found to vary for those using primary and compensatory secondary-control strategies; however, the nature of this variation depended on age. Discussion:The findings may indicate that primary-control strategies have positive health implications for the young-old but that these same strategies become detrimental to health in late life. The findings could further suggest that compensatory secondary-control strategies become increasingly more adaptive in late life.

Stability in perceived control: implications for health among very old community-dwelling adults.

Objective: Our purpose was to examine how stability/variability in perceptions of control (PC) relate to a variety of health-related variables. Design: PC stability/variability across multiple domains was assessed in a longitudinal design including 318 adults, 72 to 99 years of age. Method: PC and health-related measures were obtained during in-person interviews conducted approximately 3 months apart. PC variability was assessed in relation to self-reported health outcomes (perceived health, chronic health conditions, functional status) and objective measures of physician visits and hospitalizations recorded over a 4-year period in a highly reliable and comprehensive database. Results: PC variability was associated with poorer health, poorer functional status, and more physician visits and hospital admissions, even after statistically controlling for mean PC level and direction-of-change in PC. Implications: Our findings suggest that health and well-being among very old individuals may be compromised by fluctuating levels of PC, or conversely, that stability in PC enhances health.

Attributing illness to ‘old age:’ Consequences of a self-directed stereotype for health and mortality

Stereotypic beliefs about older adults and the aging process have led to endorsement of the myth that ‘to be old is to be ill.’ This study examined community-dwelling older adults’ (N = 105, age 80+) beliefs about the causes of their chronic illness (ie, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, etc.), and tested the hypothesis that attributing the onset of illness to ‘old age’ is associated with negative health outcomes. A series of multiple regressions (controlling for chronological age, gender, income, severity of chronic conditions, functional status and health locus of control) demonstrated that ‘old age’ attributions were associated with more frequent perceived health symptoms, poorer health maintenance behaviours and a greater likelihood of mortality at 2-year follow-up. The probability of death was more than double among participants who strongly endorsed the ‘old age’ attribution as compared to those who did not (36% vs. 14%). Findings are framed in the context of self-directed stereotypes and implications for potential interventions are considered.

A Review of Attributional Retraining Treatments: Fostering Engagement and Persistence in Vulnerable College Students

Pursuing a university degree intermixes intellectual ability, content knowledge, emotional stamina, unflagging motivation, and goal striving with diverse learning environments. The academic aspirations of students, however, often belie the realities of unanticipated obstacles along the way that thwart eventual success. Motivation and performance can be undermined through unfamiliar and unpredictable learning experiences involving heightened competition, increased pressure to excel, more frequent failure, novel assignments, ineffective instruction, stringent grading practices, critical career choices, and new social networks. These situations can lead to a paradox of failure in which bright, enthusiastic, and capable students underperform in university, or quit outright. In response, various educational interventions have been developed by postsecondary institutions to rectify escalating attrition rates. Attributional retraining (AR) is a motivation-enhancing treatment designed to offset the dysfunctional explanatory thinking that can arise from unsatisfactory learning experiences. This chapter describes the theoretical framework and empirical evidence underpinning AR as an effective motivation treatment for assisting failure-prone students in higher education settings.

Faculty in Transition: A Longitudinal Analysis of Perceived Control and Type of Institution in the Research Productivity of Newly Hired Faculty.

The systemic changes facing postsecondary institutions today pose a threat to the quality of academic programs unless new faculty can be successfully attracted and retained. To be more competitive in the recruitment and retention of faculty, a better understanding is needed of the adjustment experiences of newly hired faculty. Our study examined the adjustment of new hires at the point of entry into their institutions using research productivity as one indicator of adaptation. It was expected that perceived personal control, age, gender, and type of institution would relate to research productivity. At the beginning of their first and second year, newly hired faculty in three different types of postsecondary institutions responded to a comprehensive questionnaire concerning their initial adjustment experiences. A path analysis indicated both direct and indirect linkages between the independent variables of interest and research productivity. Substantial direct paths were found between the institution type and research productivity, specifically for the research I and liberal arts/comprehensive institutions, and to a lesser degree, between age and research productivity. Age, the research I university, and the liberal arts/comprehensive universities had direct effects on two measures of perceived control and were linked indirectly to research productivity via perceived control. Perceived control resulting from the personal qualities of the faculty members was instrumental to research productivity, whereas perceived control resulting from activities initiated by faculty members were not related to productivity. Surprisingly, gender was not related to research productivity through either direct or indirect paths. If the adjustment of newly hired faculty is viewed in terms of research productivity, then these results suggest that perceived control, the milieu of research-oriented institutions, and age (to a limited extent), are important predictors of faculty performance.

Gender differences in use of primary and secondary control strategies in older adults with major health problems

The present study examined primary and secondary control strategies among 143 men and women (73–98 years) who either reported having had or not had an acute event (heart attack or stroke), all of whom had health-related restrictions on everyday tasks and activities. Repeated measures of ANCOVAs tested the between-group effects of gender (men, women) and Acute Event (no, yes) and the within-subject effect, strategy type, on the frequency ratings of multiple control strategies. For men, having suffered an acute health event was unrelated to their use of primary control strategies. In contrast, women who had experienced an acute health event reported significantly less frequent use of primary control strategies than their counterparts who had not, perhaps suggesting that acute health events undermine proactive control striving and precipitate a shift to secondary control. Moreover, women differed significantly from men in their use of secondary control strategies, using them more often and displaying more diversity in their use. By demonstrating that womens use of primary control strategies is related to their past health events and that they adopt secondary control strategies more often than men and in a more differentiated or selective way, our findings underscore the importance of examining gender differences in strategy use during later life.