Raymond Westbrook

Babylonian Diplomacy in the Amarna Letters

Modern commentators view the pattern of negotiations in the Amarna Letters as reflecting an imbalance between Egypt and the Asiatic great powers. The Asiatic kings try unsuccessfully to wrest gold and status from the Pharaoh, and in doing so are often forced into humiliating concessions. The Babylonian dispatches are regarded as a prime example of this imbalance. Babylonian kings look, at best, self-abasing and, at worst, ridiculous, especially when describing their own actions and reactions in previous diplomatic incidents. A close analysis of Babylonian arguments, however, reveals a cunning and devious train of logic designed to gain the moral advantage over the Egyptian interlocutor. The Babylonian rulers used the cultural conventions of the day to send hidden messages, the meaning of which would nonetheless be unmistakable to the recipient.

Conclusion: Swords into Plowshares Then and Now

To the Inhabitants of the ancient Near East, certain truths were sell-evident. The earth was flat and the sun went round the earth. Below the surface of the earth was the world where the spirits of the dead resided. Above were the heavens, where most of the gods were located, although some were also present on earth. The gods were a reality, sometimes visible to the naked eye in the form of stars or winds or rivers, but mostly accessible through dreams or through the Intermediacy of specialists such as diviners and prophets.

Introduction: The World of Isaiah

The image of swords being beaten into plowshares, of weapons transformed into agricultural implements, is one of the most powerful metaphors in the Bible. For over 2,500 years Isaiah’s prophecy of a peaceful, disarmed mankind has inspired Jews and Christians alike. His scenario of harmony between predator and prey, and the replacement of violence by cooperation, has become part of the heritage of Western civilization. ‘The wish lor a world without war has long been the dominant theme in normative thinking about international relations. (Andrew Hurrell in his chapter in this volume reviews the debate on world order and global governance.)