Rebecca L. Brookland

New Zealand Drivers Study: a follow-up study of newly licensed drivers.

Background: Despite significant improvement since graduated licensing was introduced, traffic-related injury remains the leading cause of death and hospitalisation among young New Zealanders. Most research to date has used routinely collected crash data but has been limited in that these databases do not, and realistically cannot, include the level of detail required to ensure that learner driver policy and programmes are based on sound scientific evidence applicable to young drivers in the current New Zealand context. Objectives: To examine the driving-related experiences of newly licensed drivers to identify factors associated with increased or decreased risk of negative traffic outcomes. Design: Multistage prospective cohort study. Setting: New Zealand. Participants: Newly licensed drivers. Variables: Exposures: background demographic details, pre-licence driving, previous crashes, driving intentions, motivations for driving and licensing, sensation seeking, aggression, impulsivity, quality and quantity of driving experience, driving supervision, driving behaviour, alcohol and other drug use, compliance with New Zealand’s graduated driver licensing scheme, driver training/education, cell phone use, and sleep. Outcomes: crash, conviction, infringements, risky driving. Data sources: Exposures: participants and their parents. Outcomes: participants and official records. Bias: On the basis of a pilot study, participation and attrition bias are likely to be minimal. A comparison of baseline data for those followed and those not followed will be undertaken. Information bias will be minimised by standardised questionnaires. Information on potential confounders is to be collected and controlled for in analyses. Study size: 5000 (including 1500 Māori). Statistical Methods: Survival analysis, logistic or Poisson regression, generalised estimating equations.

NEW ZEALAND DRIVERS STUDY: DEVELOPING A METHODOLOGY FOR CONDUCTING A FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF NEWLY LICENSED DRIVERS

PROBLEM In recent years, there has been a significant reduction in traffic crash injury among young people, but they continue to be overrepresented in the traffic crash statistics. To improve this situation, sound scientific evidence is needed to develop effective policies and programs. METHOD The aim of the proposed study is to provide this evidence by examining early driving and driving-related experiences of newly licensed drivers as they progress through the learner-, restricted-, and full-license stages of the graduated licensing system and to determine the impact of these experiences on subsequent negative traffic-related outcomes (risky driving behavior, injury traffic crashes, noninjury traffic crashes, infringements, convictions). Given the size and complexity of the proposed study, a comprehensive pilot study was undertaken to determine the feasibility of conducting a New Zealand-wide cohort study of newly licensed drivers. RESULTS This article describes the pilot study process and the methodology that has been developed for the New Zealand-wide study.

Nonprogression through graduated driver licensing: characteristics, traffic offending, and reasons for nonprogression

Objectives: In a graduated driver license environment, (1) compare nonprogressors with progressors in terms of prelearner license sociodemographic and behavioral factors, (2) determine whether nonprogressors were more likely to have had a traffic offense than progressors, and (3) determine why nonprogressors chose not to progress. Methods: Our study population was that of the New Zealand Drivers Study (NZDS), a prospective cohort study of newly licensed drivers designed to explore the relationship between a comprehensive range of driving and traffic safety related factors and subsequent traffic crashes and convictions among newly licensed drivers. Nonprogressors, those who had not progressed from a learner to a restricted license 2 years after being eligible to do so, were compared with progressors in terms of their sociodemographic, behavioral characteristics, and traffic offense outcomes. Results: Nonprogressors represented 38 percent of the cohort and had different sociodemographic and behavioral profiles than progressors. A delay in progression was associated with reduced risk of being a traffic offender. The primary reasons reported for nonprogression were too lazy or busy or limited access to the means to drive. Conclusion: Before restricting how long a novice driver can hold a learner license, as has been suggested by the Ministry of Transport, consideration should be given to the potential increased risk of offending once unsupervised driving is permitted.

Pre-licensed driving experience and car crash involvement during the learner and restricted, licence stages of graduated driver licensing: Findings from the New Zealand drivers study.

OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to determine whether pre-licence driving experiences, that is driving before beginning the licensing process, increased or decreased crash risk as a car driver, during the learner or the restricted licence stages of the graduated driver licensing system (GDLS). METHOD Study participants were 15-24 year old members of the New Zealand Drivers Study (NZDS) - a prospective cohort study of newly licensed car drivers. The interview stages of the NZDS are linked to, the three licensing stages of the GDLS: learner, restricted and full. Baseline demographic (age, ethnicity, residential location, deprivation), personality (impulsivity, sensation seeking, aggression) and, behavioural data, (including pre-licensed driving behaviour), were obtained at the learner licence interview. Data on distance driven and crashes that occurred at the learner licence and restricted licence stages, were reported at the restricted and full licence interviews, respectively. Crash data were also obtained from police traffic crash report files and this was combined with the self-reported crash data. The analysis of the learner licence stage crashes, when only supervised driving is allowed, was based on the participants who had passed the restricted licence test and undertaken the NZDS, restricted licence interview (n=2358). The analysis of the restricted licence stage crashes, when unsupervised driving is first allowed, was based on those who had passed the full licence test and completed the full licence interview (n=1428). RESULTS After controlling for a range of demographic, personality, behavioural variables and distance driven, Poisson regression showed that the only pre-licence driving behaviour that showed a consistent relationship with subsequent crashes was on-road car driving which was associated with an increased risk of being the driver in a car crash during the learner licence period. CONCLUSION This research showed that pre-licensed driving did not reduce crash risk among learner or restricted licensed drivers, and in some cases (such as on-road car driving) may have increased risk. Young people should be discouraged from the illegal behaviour of driving a car on-road before licensing.

Unsupervised driving by learner licence holders: Associated characteristics and crash risk

AIMS To determine: (a) the association between socio-demographic, and behavioural factors and compliance with supervised driving condition as a learner licensed driver, (b) whether unsupervised driving as a learner licence holder was associated with elevated crash risk while holding a learner licence. STUDY DESIGN The study population was the New Zealand Drivers Study (NZDS) cohort, a prospective cohort study designed to explore the relationship between a comprehensive range of driving and traffic safety related factors and subsequent traffic crashes and convictions among newly licensed drivers. RESULTS Thirty-one percent of the study sample was non-compliant at least once with the supervised driving condition. Many socio-demographic and behavioural risk factors were independently associated with unsupervised driving. The strength of the associations was greatest for those with relatively high levels of unsupervised driving (13+ trips). High distance driven showed the strongest relationship: RR 8.91 (95% CI 5.27-15.07). Unsupervised driving was associated with increased risk of crash: 1-12 trips: RR 1.84 (1.29-2.61), and 13+ trips: RR 2.71 (1.94-3.80). Given that a significant portion of learner licence holders report driving unsupervised and those that violate this condition the most are more likely to crash, evaluation of strategies designed at improving compliance with learner licence supervised driving condition should be a research priority.

Associations of repeated high alcohol use with unsafe driving behaviors, traffic offenses, and traffic crashes among young drivers: Findings from the New Zealand Drivers Study

ABSTRACT Objective: The objective of this study was to describe self-reported high alcohol use at each of the 3 licensing stages of graduated driver licensing and its relationship to drink-driving behaviors, intentional risky driving, aggressive driving, alcohol traffic offenses, non-alcohol traffic offenses, and traffic crashes. Methods: The New Zealand Drivers Study (NZDS) is a multistage, prospective cohort study of newly licensed drivers interviewed at all 3 stages of the graduated driver licensing system: learner (baseline), restricted (intermediate), and full license. At each stage, alcohol use was self-reported using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT-C), with high alcohol use defined as a score of ≥4 for males and ≥3 for females. Sociodemographic and personality data were obtained at the baseline interview. Alcohol-related, intentional risky, and aggressive driving behaviors were self-reported following each license stage. Traffic crashes and offenses were identified from police records. Crashes were also self-reported. Results: Twenty-six percent (n = 397) reported no high alcohol use, 22% at one license stage, 30% at 2 stages, and 22% at 3 stages. Poisson regression results (unadjusted and adjusted) showed that the number of stages where high alcohol use was reported was significantly associated with each of the outcomes. For most outcomes, and especially the alcohol-involved outcomes, the relative risk increased with the number of stages of high alcohol use. Conclusions: We found that high alcohol use was common among young newly licensed drivers and those who repeatedly reported high alcohol use were at a significantly higher risk of unsafe driving behaviors. Recently introduced zero blood alcohol concentration (BAC) should help to address this problem, but other strategies are required to target persistent offenders.

Participation in driver education/training courses during graduated driver licensing, and the effect of a time-discount on subsequent traffic offenses: Findings from the New Zealand Drivers Study.

INTRODUCTION The New Zealand GDL includes a time-discount at the restricted license stage, for attendance at an approved driver education course. This is despite international evidence showing that earlier licensure associated with a time-discount can increase risk for newly licensed drivers. OBJECTIVE To examine participation in driver education courses and especially those that qualify for a time-discount; compare the profiles of course participants with non-participants; examine reasons for participation; and examine the association between a time-discount and traffic offenses once fully licensed. METHOD This study was based on the New Zealand Drivers Study (NZDS), a prospective cohort study of newly licensed drivers. Data on driver education courses were obtained at the full license interview (n=1763), driver license and traffic offense data from the NZ Driver Licence Registry, and other data at the NZDS interviews. RESULTS 94% had heard of and 49% (n=868) participated in a defensive driving course (DDC). No other course had more than 1% participation. Compared with the others, the DDC group were young, non-Māori, and from an area of relatively low deprivation. Through GDL, the DDC group were relatively more compliant with the conditions, and less likely to crash or receive a traffic offense notice. The groups did not differ on personality, alcohol and drug use. The reason most (85%) attended a DDC was to get their full license sooner; 86% (n=748) received a time-discount. The time-discount group were 40% more likely to receive a traffic offense notice on their full license; this reduced to 10% after controlling for other factors. CONCLUSION AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS The results of this study, when viewed in conjunction with other NZ crash evidence, indicate that a time-discount should not be given for completing a DDC or Street Talk course.

Understanding driving anxiety in older adults

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES Driving anxiety is a heterogeneous experience that can impact on everyday activities. Little is known about whether older adults experience driving anxiety and, if so, what impact it has on their health, functioning, and quality of life. This is particularly important given the ageing population and driving patterns of older drivers. The present study examines the extent of self-reported driving anxiety in older adult drivers. DESIGN Population survey of community-dwelling older drivers. SETTING New Zealand. PARTICIPANTS 1170 adults aged 65 and over. MEASUREMENTS Self-reported ratings of driving anxiety. RESULTS 62.3% of participants reported no driving anxiety, 27.0% reported mild driving anxiety and 10.7% endorsed more moderate to extreme levels of driving anxiety, which is higher than has been identified with adults aged 55-72. Women were significantly more often (p <  .01) represented in the groups of mildly and moderately anxious drivers, and those who were moderately to extremely anxious were more likely to be aged 70+ (p <  .04). Those with moderate to severe driving anxiety tended to drive less often, for shorter distances, and to use alternative modes of transport more often than those with mild or no driving anxiety. CONCLUSION Driving anxiety is experienced by many older adults, with quite a large proportion reporting high levels of driving anxiety and associated differences in driving patterns. Further research is needed to better understand why older drivers experience driving anxiety, and how it impacts health and wellbeing as well as driving self-regulation and cessation.