Rebecca S. Merkin

Power Distance and Facework Strategies

This study utilized Hofstedes (2001) study that tested whether Hofstedes power distance (PD) dimension of culture is an important predictor for understanding cross-cultural facework. It investigated how cultural groups differing in their level of PD negotiate strategic responses (i.e., cooperative, indirect, or direct) to a face-threatening situation on the individual level. Respondents from six cultures—Japan, Hong Kong, Israel, Chile, Sweden, and the United States—completed questionnaires. Multivariate multiple regression results from an individual-level analysis show that large-PD culture members are more likely to use cooperative, indirect, and direct communication strategies to manage face threats than their small-PD counterparts. The cooperative and indirect facework findings in this study corresponded with Hofstede (1980, 2001), thereby adding support for Hofstedes (1980, 2001) grand theory of cultural dimensions.

Intercultural Friendship: Linking Communication Variables and Friendship Success

International students often complain about the lack of friendships with host nationals. This study explores the relationship between communication variables, number of friendships, and friendship satisfaction. International students at a large urban university in the United States completed a survey on willingness to communicate, communicative adaptability, English language proficiency, loneliness, and friendship with the Americans. Results show that international students rated their American friendships lower than their home- or other-culture friendships. Friendship numbers and satisfaction were significantly related to communicative adaptability, language proficiency, and loneliness. There was no significant correlation between friendship success and willingness to communicate or length of stay.

Middle Eastern Impression-Management Communication

This study examines Israeli and Syrian impression management (facework), drawing on Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions. Using a MANCOVA design while controlling for social desirability and gender, it measured the influence of country on direct, aggressive, competitive, and harmonious facework strategies from self-report questionnaires (n = 176) collected in Israel and Syria. Consistent with the hypotheses, Israelis exhibit more direct, aggressive, and competitive facework strategies than Syrians. Israeli facework strategies corresponded to cultural individualism and a low power distance, whereas Syrian facework corresponded to cultural collectivism and a high power distance. Contrary to expectation, Israeli facework is more harmonious. A unique contribution of the present study is the identification of changes in facework necessary for avoiding a loss of face among two populations whose previous diplomatic efforts have not succeeded.

The impact of sexual harassment on job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and absenteeism: findings from Pakistan compared to the United States

The purpose of this study was to compare and contrast how differences in perceptions of sexual harassment impact productive work environments for employees in Pakistan as compared to the US; in particular, how it affects job satisfaction, turnover, and/or absenteeism. This study analyzed employee responses in Pakistan (n = 146) and the United States (n = 102, 76) using questionnaire data. Significant results indicated that employees who were sexually harassed reported (a) a decrease in job satisfaction (b) greater turnover intentions and (c) a higher rate of absenteeism. Cross-cultural comparisons indicated that (a) Pakistani employees who were sexually harassed had greater job dissatisfaction and higher overall absenteeism than did their US counterparts and (b) Pakistani women were more likely to use indirect strategies to manage sexual harassment than were US targets.

Communication practices in the US and Syria.

This study highlights Syrian communication practices using comparative tests with the United States communication as a baseline. Additionally, theoretical findings on individualism and collectivism theory are extended to include findings from Syria. Multivariate Analysis of Covariance was used to test culture’s effect in demographically similar (in age, SES, and education) student convenience samples, with the covariate communication adaptability, on dependent variables: empathy, social confirmation, social composure, friendships, non-verbal immediacy, social self-efficacy, and general self-efficacy. Results indicated that Syrians possess more empathy, social confirmation, and perceived general self-efficacy in comparison to U.S. citizens who have greater social composure, friendships, non-verbal immediacy and social self-efficacy. These results indicate that Syrians have the strength of self-efficacy to succeed in intercultural relationships while U.S. Americans have the assets of warmth and sociability to enable successful interactions with Syrians.

Principles of Saving Face

This chapter discusses the significance of face. Why face is important, how face is gained, what a line is, and how face is saved is explained in greater detail in this chapter. Facework processes and the concept of an interaction ritual as well as Goffman’s principles of face are also elucidated upon. Finally, this chapter clarifies how face is enacted on the individual level as opposed to the cultural level (which is explained later). Face enactment processes as well as what a face threat is and face threatening acts are the main content of this chapter.

Individualism-Collectivism and Saving Face

This chapter discusses the cultural dimensions individualism and collectivism. In particular, the idea of how collectivism is related to favoring in-groups over out-groups, and how this is played out in the workplace is explained. Collectivism’s focus on harmony and status differences is also presented. Individualistic consultations as well as their need to self-promote is explained. The difference between collectivistic high-context and individualistic low-context communication is developed. Other concepts relating to business such as leadership, in particular, with reference to the GLOBE research are presented. Workplace concepts such as work-life balance and the need for feedback are expounded upon as well

Power Distance, Receiver Facework, Innovation, and Superior-Subordinate Relationships

This chapter discusses the cultural dimension power distance and how it relates to business and face. Power distance is described as a receiver perceptions that is part of the cultural imprint that affects responses to others and is correlated with collectivism. The association between power distance and unjust world beliefs, power, hierarchy, maintaining the status quo, direct communication (those who are powerful), indirect communication, consultation expectations, harmony, cooperation, passivity, innovation, motivation, and paternalism is explained in this chapter. Other topics relating to business such as leadership, superior-subordinate relationships, teams, participation, and petty tyranny are deliberated on as well.

Masculinity-Femininity Applied to Cooperative and Competitive Facework

This chapter discusses the cultural dimension of masculinity versus femininity. In particular, the association between masculinity and competitive facework and cultural femininity and cooperative facework and leveling facework is presented. Schwartz’ theory is explained and an explanation is provided for not using it over Hofstede’s theory. The issue of sexual harassment is discussed along with how it is more rampant in masculine cultures than feminine cultures. Issues of work-life balance are also described as related to masculinity in Chap. 6. Issues relating to saving face are interspersed throughout the chapter.

Individualism-Collectivism Applied to Direct Versus Indirect Facework

This chapter discusses how individualism is associated with direct communication while collectivism is associated with indirect communication. Examples are provided to explain how this primary point of conflict needs to be addressed. The idea that individualism is associated with a task orientation is also contrasted with how collectivistic cultural members are more relationship orientated. This fundamental difference is also presented together with examples such as the classic misunderstanding of signing a contract right away as opposed to vacationing first. Finally, the issue of how collectivistic millennials are somewhat different in their collectivistic outlook is also discussed.