Regina Scheyvens

Ecotourism and the empowerment of local communities

Abstract This research note considers ways in which we may better understand how ecotourism ventures impact on the lives of people living in, and around, the environments which ecotourists frequent. From a development perspective, ecotourism ventures should only be considered ‘successful’ if local communities have some measure of control over them and if they share equitably in the benefits emerging from ecotourism activities. An empowerment framework is proposed as a suitable mechanism for aiding analysis of the social, economic, psychological and political impacts of ecotourism on local communities.

Exploring the Tourism-Poverty Nexus

Current discourse surrounding ‘pro-poor tourism’, a term emerging out of the writing of UK researchers in the late 1990s, suggests that tourism can effectively work as a tool to alleviate poverty. This proposition is alluring given that tourism is a significant or growing economic sector in most countries with high levels of poverty. Consequently the idea of utilising tourism to eliminate poverty has been embraced by donors, governments, non-governmental organisations, conservation organisations and tourism bodies, including the World Tourism Organisation. Academic views on the relationship between poverty and tourism have however varied widely over the past half century. While in the 1950s tourism was identified as a modernisation strategy that could help newly-independent Third World countries to earn foreign exchange, in the 1970s and 1980s many social scientists argued that poor people and non-Western countries are typically excluded from or disadvantaged by what tourism can offer. It is thus fascinating to see how there has been a concerted push towards a reversal of this thinking in the 1990s, coinciding with the development industrys global focus on poverty alleviation. This paper will detail this evolution of thinking and in doing so, explore theoretical debates on the tourism-poverty nexus.

Backpacker tourism and Third World development

Abstract Third World governments often scorn international backpackers, professing instead an enthusiasm for pursuing higher-value, luxury tourism. This article presents an alternative perspective, elaborating upon ways that providing goods and services for backpackers can promote development, especially at the local level. Several challenges will need to be addressed, however, if such communities are to have some control over the backpacker submarket and maximize the benefits they gain from it. Such challenges include overcoming the self-centered attitudes of some backpackers who might behave irresponsibly, and encouraging Third World governments to establish a policy environment and effective infrastructure which support community involvement in this form of tourism.

Tourism and Poverty Reduction: Issues for Small Island States

Abstract The notion that tourism can contribute significantly to poverty reduction strategies is attracting great interest from multilateral institutions, tourism bodies, donors and other organizations around the globe. Tourism is certainly a major contributor to economic development in many small island developing states (SIDS) and often it is the only industry in these countries to consistently demonstrate growth in recent years. However, the growth of tourism in SIDS is by no means synonymous with poverty reduction, in fact, in some cases it entrenches existing inequalities. If tourism is to contribute significantly to the reduction of poverty in SIDS, a broad approach that values social sustainability as well as the more popular environmental sustainability and economic growth will be necessary. In addition, governments need to establish an effective policy environment and play a stronger regulatory role if sustainable, equity-enhancing tourism is to emerge. The paper suggests effective ways in which national planning can both encourage private sector actors to support poverty reduction and facilitate the involvement of wider sectors of society in tourism development. It is not sufficient for governments to simply promote tourism development in line with neoliberal growth-orientated policies.

Tourism in small island states: from vulnerability to strengths.

This article argues that the narrow and frequently negative conceptualisations of small island states as environmentally vulnerable and economically dependent are problematic for sustainable tourism development and for economic development, generally. Scenarios presented to date are often incomplete. Narratives suggesting that island peoples are unskilled and lack resources, and that their islands are ‘tiny’ and ‘fragile’, can undermine their pride and stifle their initiative, reducing their ability to act with autonomy to determine and achieve their own developmental goals. A range of more positive conceptualisations is given, demonstrating the strong social dimensions of sustainability in small island states and the resilience and adaptability of island states. Examples describe a number of positive development paths to sustainable tourism in small island states.

Poor cousins no more: valuing the development potential of domestic and diaspora tourism.

In many countries there is an insidious perception that domestic tourism is the ‘poorcousin’ of the more glamorous international tourism market. Yet domestic tourism constitutes the vast majority of tourist flows world wide, and there has been significant growth within Third World countries in particular coinciding with an increase in numbers of middle-income earners. Simultaneously there has been a tendency to take for granted return visits by overseas-based nationals, the diaspora. Using a case study of Samoa, where the development of basic beach huts has provided a low-cost vacation option for both local and overseas-based Samoan tourists, this article demonstrates how domestic tourism can have significant economic, socio-cultural and political benefits. As such, domestic and diaspora tourism deserve more serious consideration than they have been granted by most governments and by tourism and development researchers to date.

Experimenting with Active Learning in Geography: Dispelling the Myths That Perpetuate Resistance.

While some geographers have embraced active learning as a means to engage students in a course, many others stick to conventional teaching methods. They are often deterred by suggestions that it can be difficult to implement active learning where students have no prior knowledge of a subject, that active learning requires too much work of lecturers and students, and that there are significant institutional constraints to implementing active learning. In this article the authors draw on their experiences of utilizing active learning in five different countries before dispelling myths which continue to constrain the uptake of active learning methods. Finally, they provide simple guidelines for successful integration of active learning in geography courses.

GENDER, ETHICS AND EMPOWERMENT: DILEMMAS OF DEVELOPMENT FIELDWORK

For students and academics involved with development studies, fieldwork is often a critical aspect of the research process. This process, however, can give rise to a plethora of ethical dilemmas relating to power gradients between the researcher and the researched. Combined with this are complex issues of knowledge generation, ownership and exploitation. The sensitivity of these issues may be intensified when involving women as research participants. Ethical issues regarding the validity and effectiveness of cross-cultural and cross-gendered fieldwork in Third World contexts are explored in this article, with examples drawn from recent research practice. Following this review is a critical discussion concerning whether there is potential for the fieldwork process to be empowering for research participants.

Tourism and poverty alleviation in Fiji: comparing the impacts of small- and large-scale tourism enterprises

This paper explores the pro-poor tourism literatures proposition that businesses “at all levels and scales of operation” can contribute to poverty alleviation, and questions the view that small-scale “alternative” forms of tourism development are preferable in delivering wide-ranging benefits to the poor. Based on research in Fiji, it uses the multidimensional view of poverty modelled on Zhao and Ritchies integrative research framework for “anti-poverty tourism” that identifies three determinants: “opportunity”, “empowerment” and “security”. The paper reveals that both small- and large-scale tourism make positive contributions to revenue generation, job creation and community development, but there is considerable potential for local procurement and labour conditions to improve. Poverty has increased in Fiji, despite rising tourism arrivals, but this problem is complex and is linked to agricultural decline. An underlying concern is that tourism policy in Fiji encourages development of large, foreign-owned resorts, while indigenous businesses often do not receive the support they require to be successful in the long term. Thus, indigenous Fijian participation in the tourism sector is predominantly as employees or as recipients of lease monies, and rarely as those directly involved in tourism planning and development, therefore limiting the pro-poor potential of the sector in Fiji.

International Students Pursuing Postgraduate Study in Geography: impediments to their learning experiences

There are significant numbers of international postgraduate students studying in Western universities thanks to scholarships provided by governments and other donors. While these fully funded students are generally welcomed by geography departments, inadequate attention has been paid to considering how to facilitate their learning experiences given the particular impediments they face. Based on research conducted at Massey University, New Zealand, and an extensive literature review, this article argues that academic success is strongly related to the personal well-being of students. Particular pressures were faced by students during the first few months as they adapted to a new cultural, linguistic and learning environment. Female students and those with families faced additional, continuing pressures.