Reinhard Kopiez

EMuJoy: Software for continuous measurement of perceived emotions in music

An adequate study of emotions in music and film should be based on the real-time measurement of selfreported data using a continuous-response method. The recording system discussed in this article reflects two important aspects of such research: First, for a better comparison of results, experimental and technical standards for continuous measurement should be taken into account, and second, the recording system should be open to the inclusion of multimodal stimuli. In light of these two considerations, our article addresses four basic principles of the continuous measurement of emotions: (1) the dimensionality of the emotion space, (2) data acquisition (e.g., the synchronization of media and the self-reported data), (3) interface construction for emotional responses, and (4) the use of multiple stimulus modalities. Researcher-developed software (EMuJoy) is presented as a freeware solution for the continuous measurement of responses to different media, along with empirical data from the self-reports of 38 subjects listening to emotional music and viewing affective pictures. Behavior Research Methods

Towards a general model of skills involved in sight reading music

Sight reading is a functional skill which is essential for all musicians involved in particular fields of western classical music culture. In the last decade, expertise theory has shown that time spent on activities is a good predictor for later achievement in a domain. However, this study is based on the hypothesis that general and elementary cognitive skills as well as practice-related skills must be considered in the explanation of outstanding sight-reading achievement. Different component skills involved in sight reading were attributed to one of three categories: (a) general cognitive skills (working memory, short-term music memory, short-term numerical memory, and Ravens D Matrices); (b) elementary cognitive skills (speed tapping, simple reaction time, trilling speed, and speed of information processing); (c) practice-related skills (practicing solo, sight reading, and inner hearing skills). This resulted in a total set of 23 predictors. These tests were used to evaluate the potential correlates of sight-reading ability. A pre-recorded pacing melody paradigm was used for the sight-reading tasks. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the best combination of predictors is trilling speed, sight-reading expertise acquired up to the age of 15, speed of information processing, and inner hearing. These four predictors can explain 59.6% of variance. Excellence in sight reading is, therefore, the result of a combination of components assumed to be practice-related (sight-reading expertise and inner hearing) and practice-unrelated (speed of information processing). Trilling speed is interpreted in terms of an intersection between task-specific training and practice-independent advantages in movement speed. Our proposed ‘general model’ of sight reading is the completion of our ‘dynamic model’ that appeared in an earlier issue of this journal.

Classification of high and low achievers in a music sight-reading task

The unrehearsed performance of music, called ‘sight-reading’ (SR), is a basic skill for all musicians. It is of particular interest for musical occupations such as the piano accompanist, the conductor, or the correpetiteur. However, up until now, there is no theory of SR which considers all relevant factors such as practice-related variables (e.g. expertise), speed of information processing (e.g. mental speed), or psychomotor speed (e.g. speed of trills). Despite the merits of expertise theory, there is no comprehensive model that can classify subjects into high- and low-performance groups. In contrast to previous studies, this study uses a data mining approach instead of regression analysis and tries to classify subjects into predetermined achievement classes. It is based on an extensive experiment in which the total SR performance of 52 piano students at a German music department was measured by use of an accompanying task. Additionally, subjects completed a set of psychological tests, such as tests of mental speed, reaction time, working memory, inner hearing, etc., which were found in earlier studies to be useful predictors of SR achievement. For the first time, classification methods (cluster analysis, regression trees, classification trees, linear discriminant analysis) were applied to determine combinations of variables for classification. Results of a linear discriminant analysis revealed a two-class solution with four predictors (cross-validated error: 15%) and a three-class solution with five predictors (cross-validated error: 33%).

Does music listening in a social context alter experience? A physiological and psychological perspective on emotion:

Music has often been shown to induce emotion in listeners and is also often heard in social contexts (e.g., concerts, parties, etc.), yet until now, the influences of social settings on the emotions experienced by listeners was not known. This exploratory study investigated whether listening to music in a group setting alters the emotion felt by listeners. The emotional reactions to 10 musical excerpts were measured both psychologically (rating on retrospective questionnaires and button presses indicated the experience of a chill, defined as the experience of a shiver down the spine or goose pimples) and physiologically (skin conductance response) using a new, innovative multi-channel measuring device. In a repeated measures design, 14 members of an amateur orchestra (7 male, 7 female; mean age 29) came in for two testing sessions: once alone, and once as a group. Chills were validated in the data analysis: each chill was counted only if the button press was accompanied by a corresponding skin conductance response. The results showed no differences between conditions (group vs. solitary) for retrospective emotion ratings; however, the number of validated chills did show a non-significant trend towards experiencing more chills in the solitary listening session. Also, skin conductance responses during chills were significantly higher during the solitary listening condition. This and other results suggested that music listening was more arousing alone, possibly due to the lack of social feedback and of concentration on the music in the group setting.

Chills As an Indicator of Individual Emotional Peaks

Chills (goose bumps) have been repeatedly associated with positive emotional peaks. Chills seem to be related to distinct musical structures and the reward system in the brain. A new approach that uses chills as indicators of individual emotional peaks is discussed. Chill reactions of 95 participants in response to seven music pieces were recorded. Subjective intensity as well as physiological arousal (skin conductance response, heart rate) revealed peaks during chill episodes. This review suggests that chills are a reliable indicator of individual emotional peaks, combining reports of subjective feelings with physiological arousal.

Chills in different sensory domains: Frisson elicited by acoustical, visual, tactile and gustatory stimuli

‘Chills’ (frisson manifested as goose bumps or shivers) have been used in an increasing number of studies as indicators of emotions in response to music (e.g., Craig, 2005; Guhn, Hamm, & Zentner, 2007; McCrae, 2007; Panksepp, 1995; Sloboda, 1991). In this study we present evidence that chills can be induced through aural, visual, tactile, and gustatory stimulation. Additionally, chills were elicited by mere mental self-stimulation — even without any external stimulus. Subjective ratings and physiological responses (i.e., skin conductance response, heart rate, breathing rate) of 36 participants reporting chills were recorded in response to stimuli of the named sensory domains. Chills in response to all external stimuli showed similar physiological correlates. However, they differed in the subjective affective perception: more chills occurred in response to negative valent and arousing sounds and pictures, while more chills were reported for positive valent music independent of arousal. These findings suggest that the chill phenomenon could be a valuable indicator of strong emotions. However, the measurement of chills should be combined with other methods of emotion measurement, since chills can be a response to psychological events of different affective value.

The influence of deliberate practice on musical achievement: a meta-analysis

Deliberate practice (DP) is a task-specific structured training activity that plays a key role in understanding skill acquisition and explaining individual differences in expert performance. Relevant activities that qualify as DP have to be identified in every domain. For example, for training in classical music, solitary practice is a typical training activity during skill acquisition. To date, no meta-analysis on the quantifiable effect size of deliberate practice on attained performance in music has been conducted. Yet the identification of a quantifiable effect size could be relevant for the current discussion on the role of various factors on individual difference in musical achievement. Furthermore, a research synthesis might enable new computational approaches to musical development. Here we present the first meta-analysis on the role of deliberate practice in the domain of musical performance. A final sample size of 13 studies (total N = 788) was carefully extracted to satisfy the following criteria: reported durations of task-specific accumulated practice as predictor variables and objectively assessed musical achievement as the target variable. We identified an aggregated effect size of rc = 0.61; 95% CI [0.54, 0.67] for the relationship between task-relevant practice (which by definition includes DP) and musical achievement. Our results corroborate the central role of long-term (deliberate) practice for explaining expert performance in music.

Music on the timing grid: The influence of microtiming on the perceived groove quality of a simple drum pattern performance

In general, microtiming is considered to be an important factor for the perceived quality of rhythms. Our experiment analyzed the influence of early or late time shift of both bass drum and snare drum on the perceived musical quality of a short, simple drum pattern in rock style. In a web-based study, music students (N = 93) listened to a simple drum pattern played on a snare and a bass drum and evaluated the musical quality (in terms of the “groove quality”) of five degrees of microtiming deviations (early and late time shifts of the two instruments by −25 ms, −15 ms, 0 ms, +15 ms, and +25 ms). We found 5 significant results: (a) The highest ratings of perceived drum pattern quality were given for the rhythmically accurate (quantized) version; (b) the increasing deviation in microtiming resulted in lower quality ratings; (c) the evaluation of drum pattern quality showed a characteristic asymmetry of ratings for the two directions of deviations: early time shift was rated more negatively than the comparable late time shift; (d) in general, microtiming deviations on the snare drum were rated worse than comparable deviations on the bass drum; (e) the subjects’ degree of expertise in rock and pop music had no influence on the ratings. We conclude that at least some styles of modern groove-oriented music are characterized by an aesthetics of “exactitude” and a groove effect independent of microtiming deviations. Consequences for the aesthetic appreciation of different styles of music are discussed.

Psychoacoustical correlates of musically induced chills

Abstract Music listening is often accompanied by the experience of emotions, sometimes even by so-called “strong experiences of music” (SEMs). SEMs can include such pleasurable reactions as shivers down the spine or goose pimples, which are referred to as “chills”. In the present study, the role of psychoacoustical features was investigated with respect to the experience of chills. Psychoacoustical parameters of short musical segments (total duration: 20 s), characterized as chill- inducing, were analyzed and compared with musical excerpts which did not induce chill responses. A significant increase of loudness in the frequency range between 8 and 18 Bark (920–4400 Hz) was found in those excerpts for which chills were reported. Frequency-dependent changes of loudness seem to play an important role in the induction of chills.

Social feedback influences musically induced emotions.

Numerous studies have shown that music is a powerful means to induce emotions. The present study investigates whether these emotional effects can be manipulated by social feedback. In an Internet‐based study, 3315 participants were randomly assigned to two groups and they listened to different music excerpts. After each excerpt, participants rated emotions according to arousal and valence dimensions. Additionally, those in group 2 received feedback allegedly based on the emotional ratings of preceding participants. Results show that feedback significantly influenced participants’ ratings of group 2 in the manipulated direction compared to the group without feedback.