Reinhard O. Katterloher

New Wavelength Determinations of Mid-Infrared Fine-structure Lines by Infrared Space Observatory Short Wavelength Spectrometer

We report accurate new wavelengths for 29 mid-infrared ionic fine-structure lines, based on observations with the Short Wavelength Spectrometer (SWS) on board the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO). Our results originate from observations of NGC 7027, NGC 6543, NGC 6302, the Circinus galaxy, Sgr A West, and W51 IRS 2. The obtained accuracies (λ/Δλ) range from 3 × 104 to 1 × 105, depending on instrumental mode and uncertainty in radial velocities.

Far-infrared photoconductor arrays for Herschel and SOFIA

We are presently developing large format photoconductor arrays for the Herschel Space Observatory and for the Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). These arrays are based on individual Ge:Ga detectors contained in integrating cavities which are fed by an array of light cones to provide for area-filling light collection in the focal plane of an instrument. In order to detect light at wavelengths > 120 μm, uniaxial stress has to be applied to each detector crystal. We have developed a method to efficiently stress an entire stack of detector elements which allows us to form two-dimensional arrays from an arbitrary number of linear detector modules. Each linear module is read out by a cryogenic readout electronics circuit which operates at 4 K and is mechanically integrated into the module. We have measured effective quantum efficiencies of the light cone / detector /read-out chain of > 30% under realistic background conditions. GaAs photoconductive detectors could extend the spectral response cut-off up to > 300 μm. In the past, a continuous progress in material research has led to the production of pure, lightly and heavily doped n-type GaAs layers using the liquid phase epitaxy technique (LPE). Sample detectors demonstrated the expected infrared characteristics of bulk type devices. Modeling of BIB detector types predicts an improved IR sensitivity due to the attainable higher doping of the infrared sensitive layer. However, the modeling gives also an estimate of the severe material requirements for the n-type blocking layer. With a new centrifugal technique for the LPE material growth we intend to achieve this goal. Technical details of this unique equipment, first results of the achieved material quality in the initial growth runs and future steps to optimize operational parameters are reported. If successful, this detector technology will be first implemented in our spectrometer FIFI LS for SOFIA.

First Results on GaAs blocked impurity band (BIB) structures for far-infrared detector arrays

We are developing a GaAs photoconductive detector for far-infrared (FIR) astronomy. A detector based on GaAs in the blocked impurity band (BIB) con.guration is expected to extend the long wavelegth limit of currently available stressed Ge:Ga photoconductors up to about 330 microns. Without the need of uniaxial stress applied to the crystal, this would furthermore allow the fabrication of single chip arrays with a large number of pixels. We are reporting results of the characterization of preliminary GaAs BIB test structures. The experimental work is supported by numerical modeling that includes all contact and space charge effects.

Development of a GaAs based BIB detector for sub-mm wavelengths

Gallium arsenide is a promising material for large photoconductor arrays to be operated at submm wavelengths, where currently small stressed germanium arrays are used. The smaller binding energy of shallow donors in GaAs compared to Ge results in response at longer wavelengths without having to apply uniaxial stress. Use of n-type GaAs will greatly simplify the production of detector arrays and therefore allow much larger numbers of pixels. We have grown n-doped GaAs epitaxial films and demonstrated high absorption coefficients at wavelengths exceeding 300 μm. Combined with a high purity GaAs layer, a blocked impurity band (BIB) detector can be formed in order to simultaneously achieve efficient absorption and low dark currents. Recent progress in GaAs epitaxy technology allows production of such multilayer devices in wafer size. We are presenting the characterization results of our preliminary GaAs BIB structures.

GaAs BIB photodetector development for far-infrared astronomy

GaAs photoconductive detectors offer an extended spectral response in the far-infrared (FIR) compared to presently available stressed Ge photoconductors. Furthermore, responsivity at wavelengths up to 330 microns can be reached without having to apply uniaxial stress close to the breaking limit on each pixel. This would greatly simplify the production of detector arrays and therefore allow much larger numbers of pixels. Such arrays are highly demanded for upcoming far-infrared astronomy missions with space and airborne telescopes. However, bulk GaAs photoconductors have only limited sensitivity, due to low absorption and high dark currents. Considerable improvement of the detector performance can be expected from the development of GaAs blocked impurity band (BIB) devices. Our recent crystal growth experiments show that the liquid phase epitaxial (LPE) technique is capable of producing the required purity for the blocking layer. We have also performed far-infrared absorption measurements of doped GaAs layers which demonstrate the spectral range extension to about 330 microns and the enlarged absorption coefficient for the more highly doped absorption layer. Experimental work is supported by numerical modeling of BIB devices done in our group.

FIRST-PACS: design and performance of the sensor engineering models

The Photoconductor Array Camera and Spectrometer (PACS) will be equipped with two sensor arrays consisting of 16 X 25 pixels each. Arranged in linear arrays of 16 detectors the sensitivity of the sensors is tuned to the wavelength ranges 60 micrometers to 130 micrometers and 130 micrometers to 210 micrometers , by applying different levels of stress to the Ge:Ga crystal utilizing a special leaf spring which is part of each of the 25 modules. The electronics of the sensors are mounted on the same module but thermally isolated from the sensor level which is at a lower temperature of about 2 K. The sensors are read out by a specially developed integrating and multiplexing cryogenic read-out electronics. With a fore optics made of light cones in front of the detector cavities a 100% filling factor is achieved and a high quantum efficiency close to 0.5 is expected. In order to achieve extremely good stress uniformity in all detectors and therefore equal cutoff wavelengths, a high degree of the quality of the Ge:Ga detectors and of the assembling components used for this dedicated stress mechanism is required. The first 6 engineering modules have been successfully manufactured and tested afterwards. The relative responsivity of a set of pixels has been determined and a good performance has been demonstrated for the sensors, which are very close to fulfilling the requirements for PACS aboard the infrared spectra telescope FIRST.

Liquid phase epitaxy centrifuge for growth of ultrapure gallium arsenide for far-infrared photoconductors

Gallium arsenide extrinsic photoconductive detectors offer an extended spectral response in the far infrared (FIR) compared to presently available photodetectors, with the possibility of wavelength coverage from 60 to 300 mm. They can also be made in large planar structures, making them attractive for various far-infrared astronomical applications. In the past, continuous progress in material research has led to the production of pure, lightly and heavily doped n-type GaAs layers using liquid phase epitaxy (LPE). Sample detectors demonstrated the expected infrared characteristics of bulk type devices. Considerable improvement of detector performance could be expected from development of blocked impurity band (BIB) devices. These multi-structured detector types provide enhanced IR absorption and sensitivity due to the attainable higher doping of the infrared sensitive layer. However, the dark current in BIB detectors is determined by the level of unintentional majority doping for the relatively thin blocking layer, thus requiring ultra-high purity GaAs. With a new technique, using centrifugal forces for the LPE material growth, we intend to achieve this goal. Recently, such a growth facility has become operational at UC Berkeley. Outside contamination during the LPE growth process is largely reduced by a suspension of the crucible on active magnetic bearings in a completely closed environment. A sequential combination of centrifugal and gravitational forces provides the proper transport of the Ga solution in the growth crucible. Technical details of this unique equipment and first results of the initial growth runs will be reported.

Qualification status of the stressed photoconductor arrays for the PACS instrument aboard Herschel

The photoconductor detector arrays for the PACS instrument (Photoconductor Array Camera and Spectrometer) aboard the future ESA telescope Herschel have been developed during the engineering phase in 1999. In early 2000 the construction of the qualification models began for both, the highly and low stressed Ge:Ga arrays, which consist of 12 linear modules each. These two types of photoconductor arrays are dedicated for different wavelengths bands in the spectrometer section of the instrument. While the performance of a few engineering arrays has been studied and presented earlier, additional data are meanwhile available on the absolute responsivity and quantum efficiency of the detectors. Furthermore, experience has been obtained during manufacture of a larger series of arrays giving better statistics on performance aspects, such as uniformity of the cutoff wavelengths and of the responsivity or the maximum stress obtainable within such arrays. Considerable progress has also been made in the development and manufacture of the 4 Kelvin Cold Read-out Electronics (CRE), which will integrate and multiplex the signals generated in each linear array with its 16 detector pixels. Manufacture of the detector arrays for the qualification model is scheduled to be completed by this summer, and manufacture of the flight model has already started. The qualification model will be delivered to the test facilities, where absolute spectral performance of the 24 linear modules will be determined. In this paper we give a summary of the related activities and results as obtained during manufacturing and testing.

The EUCLID NISP tolerancing concept and results

Within ESAs 2015 - 2025 Cosmic Vision framework the EUCLID mission satellite addresses cosmological questions related to dark matter and dark energy. EUCLID is equipped with two instruments that are simultaneously observing patches of > 0.5 square degree on the sky. The VIS visual light high spacial resolution imager and the NISP near infrared spectrometer and photometer are separated by a di-chroic beam splitter. Having a large FoV (larger than the full moon disk), together with high demands on the optical performance and strong requirements on in flight stability lead to very challenging demands on alignment and post launch { post cool-down optical element position. The role of an accurate and trust-worthy tolerance analysis which is well adopted to the stepwise integration and alignment concept, as well as to the missions stability properties is therefore crucial for the missions success. With this paper we present a new iteration of the baseline tolerancing concept for EUCLID NISP. All 7 operational modes being low resolution slit-less spectroscopy and three band Y, J& H+ band photometry are being toleranced together. During the design process it was noted that the desired performance can only be reached when alignment and tolerancing methods are closely connected and optimized together. Utilizing computer generated - multi zone - holograms to align and cross reference the four lenses of the NISP optical system. We show our plan to verify these holograms and what alignment sensitivities we reach. In the main section we present the result of the tolerancing and the main contributers that drive the mechanical and thermal design of the NISO optical subsystems. This analysis presents the design status of NISP at the system PDR of the mission.

Test results of high-precision large cryogenic lens holders

For the Euclid mission a Pre-Development phase is implemented to prove feasibility of individual components of the system [1]. The Near Infrared Spectrometer and Photometer (NISP) of EUCLID requires high precision large lens holders (Ø170 mm) at cryogenic temperatures (150K). The four lenses of the optical system are made of different materials: fused silica, CaF2, and LF5G15 that are mounted in a separate lens barrel design. Each lens has its separate mechanical interface to the lens barrel, the so called adaption ring. The performance of the lens holder design is verified by adapted test equipment and test facility including an optical metrology system. The characterization of the lens deformation and displacement (decenter, tilt) due to mechanical loads of the holder itself as well as thermally induced loads are driven by the required submicron precision range and the operational thermal condition. The surface deformation of the lens and its holder is verified by interferometric measurements, while tilt and position accuracy are measured by in-situ fibre based distance sensors. The selected distance measurement sensors have the capability to measure in a few mm range with submicron resolution in ultra high vacuum, in vibration environments and at liquid nitrogen temperatures and below. The calibration of the measurement system is of crucial importance: impacts such as temperature fluctuation, surface roughness, surface reflectivity, straylight effects, etc. on the measured distance are carefully calibrated. Inbuilt thermal expansion effects of the fibre sensors are characterized and proven with lens dummy with quasi zero CTE. The paper presents the test results and measured performance of the high precision large cryogenic lens holders attained by the metrology system. These results are presented on behalf of the EUCLID consortium.