Rena F. Subotnik

Conceptions of Giftedness: Beyond Expertise: Conceptions of Giftedness as Great Performance

Our conception of giftedness rests on three theoretical premises. The first is that abilities are forms of developing expertise (Sternberg, 1998). Second, beyond the level of expertise exists the realm of elite talent (Subotnik, 2000; 2004a), or what we call scholarly productivity or artistry (SP/A). Finally, in the course of transition from novice to expert and beyond, key personality, ability, and skill factors become increasingly or decreasingly important (Subotnik, Jarvin, Moga, & Sternberg, 2003). In accordance with these premises, we believe that abilities have interactive genetic and environmental components, yet are modifiable and capable of being flexibly deployed. We view abilities as necessary but not sufficient for generating expertise or SP/A. From our perspective, giftedness in its early stages is defined as the efficient yet comprehensive development of ability into competence in a domain. During the middle stage, giftedness becomes associated with precocious achievement of expertise. Finally, we view giftedness in adulthood as SP/A, taking the form of unique contributions to a field or domain. In the course of offering details on the transformation of abilities into competencies, expertise, and, in some cases, SP/A, we focus on examples from the domain of music. Substantial evidence exists that abilities can be enhanced, at least to some degree (see Feuerstein, 1980; Herrnstein, Nickerson, deSanchez, & Swets, 1986; Nickerson, 1986; Nickerson, Perkins, & Smith, 1985; Perkins, 1995; Perkins & Grotzer, 1997; Ramey, 1994; Sternberg, 1988, 1994, 1997; Sternberg & Spear-Swerling, 1996). The best evidence favors a complex mix of genetic and environmental origins of abilities, interacting in ways that are not as yet fully known (see Sternberg & Grigorenko, 1997). The question we explore here is how abilities are developed to elicit elite performance. The foundations of elite talent can be found in an individual’s abilities, competencies, and expertise. Extraordinary abilities tend to be manifested

It's not how the pond makes you feel, but rather how high you can jump.

development. In summary, Marsh and Hau (2003) should be commended for their painstaking effort to put together this very impressive multinational study. However, to further this line of research, the theoretical basis of the BFLPE needs to be broadened in light of the extant social comparison literature. Specifically, it needs to take into account the complexity and multifaceted nature of social comparison and self-appraisal processes; the active, self-regulatory role individuals play; and the ensuing positive as well as negative consequences. The authors are prudent in pointing out that this single study, with its methodological limitations, should be interpreted in a broader context of the research literature along this line of inquiry. It also appears that the practical significance of the model will remain unclear until the question of for whom and under what conditions the BFLPE will outweigh the benefits of attending a selective school is addressed. Keeping a big fish in a little pond is not the optimal solution, at least for many.

A developmental view of giftedness: From being to doing

Rena Subotnik is director of the Esther Katz Rosen Center for Gifted Education Policy at the American Psychological Association. She is author of Genius Revisited: High IQ Children Grown Up (1993), and co-editor of Beyond Ter-man: Contemporary Longitudinal Studies of Gift-edness and Talent (with Karen Arnold). Remark-able Women: Perspectives on Female Talent Development (with Karen Arnold and Kathleen Noble), and the second edition of the Interna-tional Handbook of Research on Giftedness and Talent (with Kurt Heller, Franz Monks, and Robert Sternberg). E-mail: rsubotnik@apa.org

A Proposed Direction Forward for Gifted Education Based on Psychological Science

In this monograph, the authors advanced a set of interrelated arguments: The abilities of individuals do matter, particularly their abilities in specific talent domains; different talent domains have different developmental trajectories that vary as to when they start, peak, and end; and opportunities provided by society are crucial at every point in the talent development process. The authors argue that society must strive to promote these opportunities, but that individuals with talent also have some responsibility for their own growth and development. Furthermore, the research knowledge base indicates that psychosocial variables are determining influences in the successful development of talent. Finally, preparing young people for outstanding achievement or eminence ought to be the chief goal of gifted education.

Mentoring for Talent Development, Creativity, Social Skills, and Insider Knowledge: The APA Catalyst Program.

The mentoring component of the American Psychological Association Catalyst Program, and the Pinnacle Model upon which it was built, was derived from Blooms (1985) model of talent development. According to Bloom and his associates, optimal instruction for talent development takes place in three stages. During the first stage, young people are guided to fall in love with a topic, idea, or discipline. The second stage involves instruction in the skills, knowledge, and values of the domain. In the third and final stage, the talented young person learns to apply his or her passion and technical mastery to create a unique style and message, and to explore original problems. The Catalyst Program is a yearlong program designed to support the transition from the second to the third stage of Blooms talent development model though instruction by renowned masters in science and the arts and places a premium on the mentor/scholar relationship in guiding participating adolescents in their scientific interests and career aspirations. For the Catalyst Scholars, connecting to their team Master was the thread through which the Scholars integrated their experience with chemistry, creativity, and insider knowledge. Catalyst participants came to the program having already “used up” any resources they had available to them in their school or in other out-of-school programs, and sought more intense involvement with a career path they had tentatively committed themselves to. In the course of the experience, they refined their goals, learned what it takes to be successful, and made powerful and lasting friendships and contacts that should prepare them optimally to be future innovators.

Specialized High Schools and Talent Search Programs: Incubators for Adolescents with High Ability in STEM Disciplines.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the association between self-efficacy and maintenance of interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) resulting in completion of an undergraduate degree in a science related area. To pursue this analysis, the researchers surveyed 3,510 graduates from selective specialized science high schools within the United States as well as 603 same age participants in Talent Search programs who did not graduate from a specialized science high school. Using binary logistic regression analysis, the researchers identified individual-level variables associated with the decision by both groups of high-ability adolescents to earn an undergraduate degree in STEM. These variables include self-efficacy and stability of interest in science, mathematics, and/or technology, and suggest that both specialized science high schools and Talent Search programs both serve equally well as incubators of talent for adolescents with a proclivity for STEM related disciplines.

Important Issues, Some Rhetoric, and a Few Straw Men A Response to Comments on “Rethinking Giftedness and Gifted Education”

In this article, the authors respond to the eight commentaries on “Rethinking Giftedness and Gifted Education: A Proposed Direction Forward Based on Psychological Science” using several themes to organize their response. These themes include ability, developmental trajectories, effort and opportunity, psychosocial factors, eminence, and equity. The authors reaffirm the contention that eminence is an appropriate standard for assigning the gifted label in individuals with well-developed talents.

Identifying and Developing Talent in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM): An Agenda for Research, Policy, and Practice

The recent National Academies publication, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future (National Research Council, 2006), identified the need to produce greater numbers of highly educated and innovative scientists, engineers, and mathematicians as vital for securing a bright economic future for the United States. The members of a collaborative committed to exploring options for developing STEM talent came together to (1) review the current U.S. approach to serving adolescents who are talented and interested in STEM, (2) analyze the obstacles to meeting national goals, and (3) propose solutions for consideration by the research, policy, and practice communities. This chapter reflects the efforts of the collaborative to meet these goals.

Focus on the Psychosocial Dimensions of Talent Development: An Important Potential Role for Consultee-Centered Consultants

The American Psychological Associations Center for Gifted Education Policy (CGEP) reviewed the literature on current talent development models and conducted research on music conservatory students, high IQ students, and science-talented students as sources for a new developmental model called scholarly productivity/artistry (SP/A).The third stage of the SP/A model, where psychosocial dimensions of talent development play the most prominent role, serves as the framework for adolescent summer programs offered by CGEP. The authors argue that the psychosocial dimensions of talent development make gifted children and adolescents a promising population for consulting psychology.

Beyond perceived ability: the contribution of psychosocial factors to academic performance

In this study, we examined the contributions of grit, hope, and academic self‐efficacy to academic achievement in a sample of 609 academically talented students ranging in age from 10 to 18 years. Our hypothesis was that these variables would predict academic achievement above and beyond the contributions of demographic variables and perceived ability. After establishing the reliability and structural validity of scores for the three constructs in this sample, regression analyses indicated that hope and academic self‐efficacy were predictors of perceived ability and that academic self‐efficacy was the most robust predictor of academic achievement. Grit was not a meaningful predictor of either perceived ability or academic achievement. We concluded that psychosocial variables can contribute to performance in talented students, but research is needed to establish which psychosocial variables are the most useful.