Renata Bažok

Western corn rootworm adult movement and possible egg laying in fields bordering maize

Abstract:  Western corn rootworm (WCR), Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, larval damage in maize following soybean was observed in Croatia in 2003 along the edges and within soybean fields which bordered continuous maize fields in previous year. The explanation was that WCR adults moved from the continuous maize to the neighbouring soybean fields to lay eggs. This study was designed to measure how far WCR adults will enter into neighbouring fields to lay eggs. The WCR adult population was monitored in continuous maize fields in 2003 and 2005 by using Pherocon® AM non‐baited yellow sticky traps in the middle and on the borders of the maize field and at different distances and directions into neighbouring fields planted by wheat and soybean. Larval presence and root damage ratings (Iowa State University 1–6 ) were recorded at different locations within the maize field in following years. Approximately, the same concentration of WCR adults was recorded along the edges of the maize fields as recorded in the centres of those fields. A significant number of WCR adults was recorded up to a distance of 50 m into neighbouring fields. Regression analysis showed medium negative correlation between distance from previous maize field and root damage in the following year. Findings indicate that WCR egg lying can reach approximately 20 m into fields neighbouring maize fields and that significant root damage caused by WCR larvae in first‐year maize following soybean and wheat can happen up to a distance of 20 m into those fields. Most farmerss fields in Croatia are up to approximately 50 m wide. As an edge effect for WCR egg laying can reach approximately 20 m into fields neighbouring maize fields, our research results indicate that it is possible to see WCR larval damage in rotated fields without those WCRs being the variant form.

Ecomorphological Variation of the Wireworm Cephalic Capsule: Studying the Interaction of Environment and Geometric Shape

Studying the association between organismal morphology and environmental conditions has been very useful to test hypothesis regarding the influence of climate on shape. It has been long recognized that different environments produce dissimilar stress levels in insects, which can be reflected on the ability of an individual to overcome these pressures and spread further. Agriotes (Coleoptera: Elateridae) species infest agricultural fields in different parts of Croatia, inhabiting different climatic conditions. Previous biological studies have indicated that there is a relationship between some Agriotes biological parameters such as density and climatic conditions such as soil moisture and temperature. However, it is still unknown how these environmental properties influence the wireworm morphological structure. This is highly relevant because the head of this species is directly involved in the mobility in the soil, thus affecting the invasive capacity of this insect. Therefore the aim of this study was to assess the association between different climatic conditions and the morphological variation of Agriotes cephalic capsule. Advanced multivariate analysis and geometric morphometric tool were applied to study the covariation between shape and environmental variables. Partial Least Squares methods were used in order to analyse the association between the wireworm head shape and three different climatic conditions: soil type, temperature and rainfall. Our results showed that there is a high covariation between the wireworm head shape and the climatic conditions. It was suggested that the observed shape–environment association could be result of the high plasticity of this species in relation to its invasive capacity.

Historical and Contemporary Population Genetics of the Invasive Western Corn Rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Croatia

ABSTRACT Classical population genetic analyses were used to investigate populations of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, in Croatia in 1996 and 2009. The number of alleles was low in both 1996 and 2009; however, more alleles were found in the putative populations surveyed in 2009. Croatia had only 51% of the alleles recorded from the United States and 69% from Europe. However, 10 private (unique) alleles were found in Croatia, which were not found previously in Europe. Most populations were out of Hardy—Weinberg equilibrium, although no linkage disequilibrium was found. Low to no genetic differentiation was found between population pairwise comparisons in 1996, with a greater level of differentiation found between populations sampled in 2009. Using the program STRUCTURE, a single genetic cluster was found for populations sampled in 1996 and 2009. However, two genetic clusters were detected when the 1996 and 2009 data were combined, indicating significant temporal differentiation. Isolation by distance pattern of gene flow characterized populations sampled in 2009 only when the most distant population of Ogulin (the head of the expansion front) was included in the analysis. When Ogluin was excluded from the 2009 analysis no isolation by distance pattern was found. The possible impact that control practices have had on the population genetics of D. v. virgifera in Croatia from 1996 to 2009 are discussed in light of the temporal genetics differences found.

Monitoring techniques of the western corn rootworm are the precursor to effective IPM strategies

BACKGROUND The western corn rootworm (WCR) is economically the most important pest of maize in Croatia. To predict WCR adult population abundance and variability, traditional, genetic and morphometric monitoring of populations was conducted over time through each phase of the WCR invasion process in Croatia. RESULTS Through traditional monitoring it was shown that WCR established their current population and reached economic densities after 14 years persisting in the study area. Regression-tree-based modelling showed that the best predictor of WCR adult abundance was the total amount of rainfall. Genetic monitoring indicated that genetic differentiation increased over time at the intrapopulation level, and morphometric monitoring indicated that wing morphotypes varied according to edaphic landscape changes. CONCLUSION Traditional population metric surveys are important in WCR integrated pest management (IPM), as such surveys can be effectively used to predict population abundances. Novel-use monitoring techniques such as genetics and geometric morphometrics can be used to provide valuable information on variation within and among populations. The monitoring techniques presented herein provide sound data to assist in the understanding of both WCR ecology and population genetics and may provide more information than that currently available using traditional techniques (e.g. sticky traps), and as such these additional techniques should be written into IPM for WCR.

Seasonal Flight, Optimal Timing and Efficacy of Selected Insecticides for Cabbage Maggot (Delia radicum L., Diptera: Anthomyiidae) Control

In order to describe seasonal flight activity of the cabbage maggot Delia radicum (L.) adults in relation to Julian days (JD), degree-day accumulations (DDA) and precipitation, flight dynamics were followed weekly with the use of yellow sticky traps (YST). Climatic data were collected and DDA were calculated using the lower developmental threshold of 4.3 °C. The efficacy of four insecticides applied either as standard foliar treatment or through dipping the seedlings before transplanting was determined. Seasonal flight activity during the cultivation season of a mid-early variety of white cabbage was correlated with DDA and JD and was characterized by having two peaks. The first peak occurred between 119 ± 7.5 JD and 125.5 ± 8 JD when DDA was 471.35 ± 74.97 °C. The second occurred between 172.8 ± 6.1 JD and 179.3 ± 6.7 JD when DDA was 1,217.28 ± 96.12 °C. The DDA, cumulative capture of flies and JD are suitable for predicting the timing of insecticide application. Spraying with insecticides should be applied when the cumulative capture of flies reaches 100 flies/YST and when DDA reaches 400 °C. If only one parameter reaches the threshold, additional visual surveys should be employed to establish the level of infestation. Insecticides were able to ensure only partial control. In the future, alternative control tactics which employ seed treatments and nonpesticide measures should be investigated in Croatia.

Population dynamics of noctuid moths and damage forecasting in sugar beet

The most damaging Noctuidae pests in sugar beets in Croatia are classified into two groups based on the injuries that their larvae produce: the cutting species (Agrotis ipsilon and Agrotis segetum) and the surface‐feeding species (Mamestra brassicae, Lacanobia oleracea and Autographa gamma). The flight activity of male moths was detected and monitored using traps baited with sex pheromone. The study aimed to determine the population dynamics of noctuid pests in sugar beet crops and to propose damage forecasts and thresholds based on male moths capture in pheromone traps in specific weather conditions. A strong positive correlation between captured male moths in pheromone traps and the level of damage to sugar beet crops was established. The population densities were extremely affected by the weather conditions that prevailed in the sugar beet growing period. If the weather conditions are not optimal, the population of the second generation of moths and larvae will be smaller, and the level of damage to plants will decrease accordingly. Thus, intensive monitoring of noctuid male moth flights and weather conditions in the sugar beet growing season enabled forecasting of future damage to a larger area, although visual inspections are necessary to plan insecticide applications.

Western corn rootworm adult captures as a tool for the larval damage prediction in continuous maize

Continuous maize production in Croatia and Central Europe is at serious risk from western corn rootworm (WCR) (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera, LeConte) activity. When alternatives to sowing continuous are not feasible, farmers will need a reliable tool that will allow them to choose fields for continuous cultivation. The decision could be based on assessing the adult populations in fields from the previous year. Non‐baited yellow sticky traps [Pherocon AM (PhAM)] could be utilized as a practical tool for sampling. The main objective of this study was to determine which WCR adult population data collected by PhAM traps could most reliably predict the subsequent WCR larval population and damage. Adult WCR population densities in 30 cornfields were determined weekly over a 74 day period each year (24th to 35th week) from 2006 to 2009. In addition to root damage and plant lodging measurements, soil and root sampling were conducted to measure the WCR larval population in continuous maize fields. Larval infestation is best predicted by maximal weekly capture (MWC) but, root damage is better predicted by capture of adults in the 31st week of previous year. For the prediction of plant lodging, MWC, average daily capture (ADC) and the capture of adults in 29th week were found to be equivalent. To save money and to shorten the sampling period, farmers should employ PhAM traps between the 29th and 32nd week. The estimated WCR adult capture that could cause significant larval infestation is ≥22 adults/trap in the 29th week. Significant future root damage is predicted if ≥41 adults/trap are captured in the 31st week. Plant lodging is predicted if ≥36 adults/trap (for 90% of upright plants) or ≥32 adults/trap (for 10% of partially lodged plants) are captured in 29th week. Findings will help to develop economic threshold models and improved decision‐making for WCR management.

Pherocon AM trapping and the "whole plant count" method - A comparison of two sampling techniques to estimate the WCR adult densities in Central Europe

Pherocon AM (PhAM) trapping and visual counting are two commonly used methods for identifying maize fields in the USA that contain a sufficient number of adult western corn rootworms (WCR), Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte to cause economic root damage by larvae the following year. Therefore, the estimation of adult WCR population plays an important role in management decisions (rotation or treatment). The goals of this study were (1) to compare adult WCR data obtained by PhAM trapping to “whole plant count” data in different maize developmental stages, (2) to determine the period in which the data obtained by both methods show the highest correlation, (3) to determine the regression curve between capture of WCR on PhAM as an independent variable and number of WCR observed by visual plant count, and (4) to determine if the “whole plant count“ method can serve as a substitution for PhAM trapping under European conditions. Three samplings were conducted in 2006 in 38 fields in Croatia and one sampling was conducted in 22 fields in Serbia. Sampling in Croatia was conducted when maize plants were in the R 65–69, R 73–77 and R 79–85 developmental stages according to BBCH identification keys of maize. Sampling in Serbia was conducted when maize plants reached R 69–71 developmental stages. Three to six PhAM traps were placed in each 0.5 to 4 ha maize field seven days prior to sampling. Visual counts were conducted on the same day as trap inspections. Adult WCR densities in the PhAM traps were correlated to adult densities on whole plants. Statistical analyses comparing the results of PhAM trapping with the visual “whole plant count” method showed that there is a significant medium to strong correlation between them. Correlation coefficients varied depending on the data used in the analysis. When sampling was conducted in the first half of August (maize developmental stages R 69–77), the correlation coefficients were the highest (r(R 69–71) = 0.8677 and r(R 73–77) = 0.706). Coefficients of determination were the highest as well [r 2 (R 69–71) = 0.753; r 2 (R 73–77) = 0.4984]. Therefore, the most appropriate period for sampling is during the first half of August. At that time, the majority of the maize plants were between the R 69 and R 77 developmental stages. According to the results, 0.5–1 visually determined adult/plant corresponds to 40

Wing shape changes : a morphological view of the Diabrotica virgifera virgifera European invasion

An analysis of the hind wing morphology (size and shape) within and among western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, populations over a large geographic scale in Europe was conducted. The changes in hind wing shape and size detected were related to identifiable invasion processes (i.e. multiple introduction events into Europe), first characterised using genetic markers. Overall implications from this work suggest that geometric morphometric techniques can be used to detect population changes related to invasions and could therefore serve as a cheaper and more accessible alternative ‘biomarker’ to more expensive and specialised-use genetic markers, such as microsatellites or SNPs, when investigating biological invasions.

The Temporal and Spatial Invasion Genetics of the Western Corn Rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Southern Europe.

This study describes the genetics of the western corn rootworm (WCR), Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte in southern Europe during the introduction (1996–2001) and establishment/spread (2002–2011) phases of its invasion. The Diabrotica microsatellite core-set was used to perform traditional population genetics analyses. Our results indicated that during the introduction phase genetic diversity and population genetic structure were lower overall as compared to the establishment/spread phase. Unusually high genetic differentiation was found between the Italy and southern Europe comparisons, including high differentiation between Italian populations separated by a short distance during the establishment/spread phase. STRUCTURE analysis revealed two genetic clusters during the introduction phase and two genetic clusters during the establishment/spread phase. However, bottlenecked populations were only detected during the invasion phase. A small but significant isolation by distance effect was noted in both phases. Serbia was the geographic source of WCR to Croatia and Hungary in the introduction phase, while the United States of America was the possible source of WCR to Italy in 2001. These introductory populations were the subsequent source of individuals sampled during the establishment/spread phase. Repeated introductions and admixture events in southern Europe may have resulted in genetically diverse WCR populations that have attained 83% of all known alleles worldwide.