Reuven Wiener

Calmodulin Is Essential for Cardiac IKS Channel Gating and Assembly: Impaired Function in Long-QT Mutations

The slow IKS K+ channel plays a major role in repolarizing the cardiac action potential and consists of the assembly of KCNQ1 and KCNE1 subunits. Mutations in either KCNQ1 or KCNE1 genes produce the long-QT syndrome, a life-threatening ventricular arrhythmia. Here, we show that long-QT mutations located in the KCNQ1 C terminus impair calmodulin (CaM) binding, which affects both channel gating and assembly. The mutations produce a voltage-dependent macroscopic inactivation and dramatically alter channel assembly. KCNE1 forms a ternary complex with wild-type KCNQ1 and Ca2+-CaM that prevents inactivation, facilitates channel assembly, and mediates a Ca2+-sensitive increase of IKS-current, with a considerable Ca2+-dependent left-shift of the voltage-dependence of activation. Coexpression of KCNQ1 or IKS channels with a Ca2+-insensitive CaM mutant markedly suppresses the currents and produces a right shift in the voltage-dependence of channel activation. KCNE1 association to KCNQ1 long-QT mutants significantly improves mutant channel expression and prevents macroscopic inactivation. However, the marked right shift in channel activation and the subsequent decrease in current amplitude cannot restore normal levels of IKS channel activity. Our data indicate that in healthy individuals, CaM binding to KCNQ1 is essential for correct channel folding and assembly and for conferring Ca2+-sensitive IKS-current stimulation, which increases the cardiac repolarization reserve and hence prevents the risk of ventricular arrhythmias.

The KCNQ1 (Kv7.1) COOH terminus, a multitiered scaffold for subunit assembly and protein interaction.

The Kv7 subfamily of voltage-dependent potassium channels, distinct from other subfamilies by dint of its large intracellular COOH terminus, acts to regulate excitability in cardiac and neuronal tissues. KCNQ1 (Kv7.1), the founding subfamily member, encodes a channel subunit directly implicated in genetic disorders, such as the long QT syndrome, a cardiac pathology responsible for arrhythmias. We have used a recombinant protein preparation of the COOH terminus to probe the structure and function of this domain and its individual modules. The COOH-terminal proximal half associates with one calmodulin constitutively bound to each subunit where calmodulin is critical for proper folding of the whole intracellular domain. The distal half directs tetramerization, employing tandem coiled-coils. The first coiled-coil complex is dimeric and undergoes concentration-dependent self-association to form a dimer of dimers. The outer coiled-coil is parallel tetrameric, the details of which have been elucidated based on 2.0Å crystallographic data. Both coiled-coils act in a coordinate fashion to mediate the formation and stabilization of the tetrameric distal half. Functional studies, including characterization of structure-based and long QT mutants, prove the requirement for both modules and point to complex roles for these modules, including folding, assembly, trafficking, and regulation.

Ubiquitylation‐dependent oligomerization regulates activity of Nedd4 ligases

Ubiquitylation controls protein function and degradation. Therefore, ubiquitin ligases need to be tightly controlled. We discovered an evolutionarily conserved allosteric restraint mechanism for Nedd4 ligases and demonstrated its function with diverse substrates: the yeast soluble proteins Rpn10 and Rvs167, and the human receptor tyrosine kinase FGFR1 and cardiac IKS potassium channel. We found that a potential trimerization interface is structurally blocked by the HECT domain α1‐helix, which further undergoes ubiquitylation on a conserved lysine residue. Genetic, bioinformatics, biochemical and biophysical data show that attraction between this α1‐conjugated ubiquitin and the HECT ubiquitin‐binding patch pulls the α1‐helix out of the interface, thereby promoting trimerization. Strikingly, trimerization renders the ligase inactive. Arginine substitution of the ubiquitylated lysine impairs this inactivation mechanism and results in unrestrained FGFR1 ubiquitylation in cells. Similarly, electrophysiological data and TIRF microscopy show that NEDD4 unrestrained mutant constitutively downregulates the IKS channel, thus confirming the functional importance of E3‐ligase autoinhibition.

Trans-Binding Mechanism of Ubiquitin-like Protein Activation Revealed by a UBA5-UFM1 Complex

Modification of proteins by ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like proteins (UBLs) is a critical cellular process implicated in a variety of cellular states and outcomes. A prerequisite for target protein modification by a UBL is the activation of the latter by activating enzymes (E1s). Here, we present the crystal structure of the non-canonical homodimeric E1, UBA5, in complex with its cognate UBL, UFM1, and supporting biochemical experiments. We find that UBA5 binds to UFM1 via a trans-binding mechanism in which UFM1 interacts with distinct sites in both subunits of the UBA5 dimer. This binding mechanism requires a region C-terminal to the adenylation domain that brings UFM1 to the active site of the adjacent UBA5 subunit. We also find that transfer of UFM1 from UBA5 to the E2, UFC1, occurs via a trans mechanism, thereby requiring a homodimer of UBA5. These findings explicitly elucidate the role of UBA5 dimerization in UFM1 activation.

Ubiquitin: Molecular modeling and simulations

The synthesis and destruction of proteins are imperative for maintaining their cellular homeostasis. In the 1970s, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, and Irwin Rose discovered that certain proteins are tagged by ubiquitin before degradation, a discovery that awarded them the 2004 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Compelling data gathered during the last several decades show that ubiquitin plays a vital role not only in protein degradation but also in many cellular functions including DNA repair processes, cell cycle regulation, cell growth, immune system functionality, hormone-mediated signaling in plants, vesicular trafficking pathways, regulation of histone modification and viral budding. Due to the involvement of ubiquitin in such a large number of diverse cellular processes, flaws and impairments in the ubiquitin system were found to be linked to cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, genetic disorders, and immunological disorders. Hence, deciphering the dynamics and complexity of the ubiquitin system is of significant importance. In addition to experimental techniques, computational methodologies have been gaining increasing influence in protein research and are used to uncover the structure, stability, folding, mechanism of action and interactions of proteins. Notably, molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulations have become powerful tools that bridge the gap between structure and function while providing dynamic insights and illustrating essential mechanistic characteristics. In this study, we present an overview of molecular modeling and simulations of ubiquitin and the ubiquitin system, evaluate the status of the field, and offer our perspective on future progress in this area of research.

The Vps27/Hrs/STAM (VHS) Domain of the Signal-transducing Adaptor Molecule (STAM) Directs Associated Molecule with the SH3 Domain of STAM (AMSH) Specificity to Longer Ubiquitin Chains and Dictates the Position of Cleavage.

The deubiquitinating enzyme associated molecule with the SH3 domain of STAM (AMSH) is crucial for the removal of ubiquitin molecules during receptor-mediated endocytosis and lysosomal receptor sorting. AMSH interacts with signal transducing adapter molecule (STAM) 1 or 2, which enhances the activity of AMSH through an unknown mechanism. This stimulation is dependent on the ubiquitin-interacting motif of STAM. Here we investigate the specific mechanism of AMSH stimulation by STAM proteins and the role of the STAM Vps27/Hrs/STAM domain. We show that, in the presence of STAM, the length of the ubiquitin chains affects the apparent cleavage rate. Through measurement of the chain cleavage kinetics, we found that, although the kcat of Lys63-linked ubiquitin chain cleavage was comparable for di- and tri-ubiquitin, the Km value was lower for tri-ubiquitin. This increased affinity for longer chains was dependent on the Vps27/Hrs/STAM domain of STAM and required that the substrate ubiquitin chain contain homogenous Lys63-linkages. In addition, STAM directed AMSH cleavage toward the distal isopeptide bond in tri-ubiquitin chains. Finally, we generated a structural model of AMSH-STAM to show how the complex binds Lys63-linked ubiquitin chains and cleaves at the distal end. These data show how a deubiquitinating enzyme-interacting protein dictates the efficiency and specificity of substrate cleavage.

Distinct activation of an E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme by its cognate E3 ligases

Significance Ubiquitin (Ub) conjugation triggers protein degradation by the proteasome. Here we describe an unexplored feature of the Ub conjugation system that entails differential activation of an E2-conjugating enzyme by its cognate E3 Ub ligases. In vitro and in vivo analyses of activity-reducing mutants of the yeast Ub-conjugating (Ubc) enzyme, Ubc7, demonstrated selective activation by one of its two cognate E3 ligases, Hrd1, but not by the other, Doa10. Supported by structural modeling of the RING:Ubc7∼Ub complex, these findings are consistent with a model whereby the E2∼Ub transition state depends on noncovalent interactions between helix α2 of Ubc7 and Ub that are differentially stabilized by the two E3 RING domains. This differential activation represents a previously unidentified mechanism for regulating protein ubiquitylation. A significant portion of ubiquitin (Ub)-dependent cellular protein quality control takes place at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in a process termed “ER-associated degradation” (ERAD). Yeast ERAD employs two integral ER membrane E3 Ub ligases: Hrd1 (also termed “Der3”) and Doa10, which recognize a distinct set of substrates. However, both E3s bind to and activate a common E2-conjugating enzyme, Ubc7. Here we describe a novel feature of the ERAD system that entails differential activation of Ubc7 by its cognate E3s. We found that residues within helix α2 of Ubc7 that interact with donor Ub were essential for polyUb conjugation. Mutagenesis of these residues inhibited the in vitro activity of Ubc7 by preventing the conjugation of donor Ub to the acceptor. Unexpectedly, Ub chain formation by mutant Ubc7 was restored selectively by the Hrd1 RING domain but not by the Doa10 RING domain. In agreement with the in vitro data, Ubc7 α2 helix mutations selectively impaired the in vivo degradation of Doa10 substrates but had no apparent effect on the degradation of Hrd1 substrates. To our knowledge, this is the first example of distinct activation requirements of a single E2 by two E3s. We propose a model in which the RING domain activates Ub transfer by stabilizing a transition state determined by noncovalent interactions between the α2 helix of Ubc7 and Ub and that this transition state may be stabilized further by some E3 ligases, such as Hrd1, through additional interactions outside the RING domain.

Novel insights into the interaction of UBA5 with UFM1 via a UFM1-interacting sequence

The modification of proteins by ubiquitin-fold modifier 1 (UFM1) is implicated in many human diseases. Prior to conjugation, UFM1 undergoes activation by its cognate activating enzyme, UBA5. UBA5 is a non-canonical E1 activating enzyme that possesses an adenylation domain but lacks a distinct cysteine domain. Binding of UBA5 to UFM1 is mediated via an amino acid sequence, known as the UFM1-interacting sequence (UIS), located outside the adenylation domain that is required for UFM1 activation. However, the precise boundaries of the UIS are yet not clear and are still under debate. Here we revisit the interaction of UFM1 with UBA5 by determining the crystal structure of UFM1 fused to 13 amino acids of human UBA5. Using binding and activity assays, we found that His 336 of UBA5, previously not reported to be part of the UIS, occupies a negatively charged pocket on UFM1’s surface. This His is involved in UFM1 binding and if mutated perturbs activation of UFM1. Surprisingly, we also found that the interaction between two UFM1 molecules mimics how the UIS binds UFM1. Specifically, UFM1 His 70 resembles UBA5 His336 and enters a negatively charged pocked on the other UFM1 molecule. Our results refine our understanding of UFM1-UBA5 binding.

A Sub-population of Group A Streptococcus Elicits a Population-wide Production of Bacteriocins to Establish Dominance in the Host

Bacteria use quorum sensing (QS) to regulate gene expression. We identified a group A Streptococcus (GAS) strain possessing the QS system sil, which produces functional bacteriocins, through a sequential signaling pathway integrating host and bacterial signals. Host cells infected by GAS release asparagine (ASN), which is sensed by the bacteria to alter its gene expression and rate of proliferation. We show that upon ASN sensing, GAS upregulates expression of the QS autoinducer peptide SilCR. Initial SilCR expression activates the autoinduction cycle for further SilCR production. The autoinduction process propagates throughout the GAS population, resulting in bacteriocin production. Subcutaneous co-injection of mice with a bacteriocin-producing strain and the globally disseminated M1T1 GAS clone results in M1T1 killing within soft tissue. Thus, by sensing host signals, a fraction of a bacterial population can trigger an autoinduction mechanism mediated by QS, which acts on the entire bacterial community to outcompete other bacteria within the infection.

Conformational locking of Ufm1 upon binding to the Ufm1-interacting sequence of Uba5

Ubiquitin fold modifier 1 (Ufm1) is a ubiquitin-like protein (UBL) found in eukaryotic organisms which plays a crucial role in ER stress management and signal transduction. The crystal structure of UFM1 and its E1 (Uba5) in complex shows that Ufm1 binds to the adenylation domain of UBA5 and interacts with a separate Ufm1-interacting sequence (UIS) in the C-terminus of UBA5. The UIS interacts with Ufm1 on the opposite side of Ufm1 protein from the adenylation domain of Uba5 and the reason for this second interaction site is unclear. We analyzed Ufm1 bound to the UIS sequence through molecular dynamics simulations in order to identify additional functions for this interaction. We found that the residues in the adenylation interaction site of Ufm1 have less movement when the UIS peptide was bound to Ufm1 and formed a structure that aligns well with Ufm1 bound to the Uba5 adenylation domain. We further identified an amino acid that connects the UIS to the adenylation domain interacting site. Mutation of this amino acid decreases charging activity and shifts the Ufm1 conformation population toward the unlocked configuration even in the presence of the UIS peptide. These data suggest a role for the Uba5 UIS in stimulating activation of Ufm1.