Rich S. W. Masters

Benefits of an external focus of attention: Common coding or conscious processing?

Abstract We conducted two experiments to assess the effect attentional focus has on learning a complex motor skill and subsequent performance under secondary task loading. Participants in Experiment 1 learnt a golf putting task (300 practice trials) with a single instruction to either focus on their hands (internal focus) or the movement of the putter (external focus). No group differences were evident during learning or retention. Differences between the groups were only apparent under secondary task load; the external groups performance remained robust, while the internal group suffered a drop in performance. Verbal protocols demonstrated that the internal group accumulated significantly more internal knowledge and more task-relevant knowledge in general than the external group. Experiment 2 was designed to establish whether greater internal focus knowledge or greater explicit rule build up in general was responsible for performance breakdown. Two groups were presented with a set of six internal or external rules. Again, no performance differences were found during learning or retention. During the secondary task, both groups experienced performance deterioration. It was concluded that accumulation of explicit rules to guide performance was responsible for the internal groups breakdown in performance under secondary task loading and may be responsible for some of the performance differences reported previously.

Development and validation of a surgical workload measure: the surgery task load index (SURG-TLX).

BackgroundThe purpose of the present study was to develop and validate a multidimensional, surgery-specific workload measure (the SURG-TLX), and to determine its utility in providing diagnostic information about the impact of various sources of stress on the perceived demands of trained surgical operators. As a wide range of stressors have been identified for surgeons in the operating room, the current approach of considering stress as a unidimensional construct may not only limit the degree to which underlying mechanisms may be understood but also the degree to which training interventions may be successfully matched to particular sources of stress.MethodsThe dimensions of the SURG-TLX were based on two current multidimensional workload measures and developed via focus group discussion. The six dimensions were defined as mental demands, physical demands, temporal demands, task complexity, situational stress, and distractions. Thirty novices were trained on the Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery (FLS) peg transfer task and then completed the task under various conditions designed to manipulate the degree and source of stress experienced: task novelty, physical fatigue, time pressure, evaluation apprehension, multitasking, and distraction.ResultsThe results were supportive of the discriminant sensitivity of the SURG-TLX to different sources of stress. The sub-factors loaded on the relevant stressors as hypothesized, although the evaluation pressure manipulation was not strong enough to cause a significant rise in situational stress.ConclusionsThe present study provides support for the validity of the SURG-TLX instrument and also highlights the importance of considering how different stressors may load surgeons. Implications for categorizing the difficulty of certain procedures, the implementation of new technology in the operating room (man–machine interface issues), and the targeting of stress training strategies to the sources of demand are discussed. Modifications to the scale to enhance clinical utility are also suggested.

Reinvestment and movement disruption following stroke.

Background. Disruption of the automaticity of movement execution is commonly experienced by people with stroke and may result from the person consciously attempting to control the mechanics of his or her movements. This act of turning ones attention in toward the mechanics of an action is referred to as “reinvestment.” Objectives. This study aimed to explore the hypothesis that people with stroke have a greater propensity for reinvestment than the nondisabled population and to examine the relationship between reinvestment, functional impairment from stroke, and aspects of rehabilitation. Methods. A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was used. A total of 148 people with stroke and 148 nondisabled adults completed the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale. Correlational and multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between functional impairment and various potential predictors. Results. Compared with controls, people with stroke had a greater propensity for reinvestment. Conscious motor processing and time spent in rehabilitation were significant predictors of functional impairment following stroke. Conclusions. The association between functional impairment, propensity for reinvestment, and time spent in rehabilitation indicates that exclusive reliance on conscious motor processing strategies in the rehabilitation setting may be an impediment to regaining functional independence. There is a need to develop motor learning strategies for rehabilitation that restrain the propensity for reinvestment.

Cheating experience: Guiding novices to adopt the gaze strategies of experts expedites the learning of technical laparoscopic skills

BACKGROUND Previous research has demonstrated that trainees can be taught (via explicit verbal instruction) to adopt the gaze strategies of expert laparoscopic surgeons. The current study examined a software template designed to guide trainees to adopt expert gaze control strategies passively, without being provided with explicit instructions. METHODS We examined 27 novices (who had no laparoscopic training) performing 50 learning trials of a laparoscopic training task in either a discovery-learning (DL) group or a gaze-training (GT) group while wearing an eye tracker to assess gaze control. The GT group performed trials using a surgery-training template (STT); software that is designed to guide expert-like gaze strategies by highlighting the key locations on the monitor screen. The DL group had a normal, unrestricted view of the scene on the monitor screen. Both groups then took part in a nondelayed retention test (to assess learning) and a stress test (under social evaluative threat) with a normal view of the scene. RESULTS The STT was successful in guiding the GT group to adopt an expert-like gaze strategy (displaying more target-locking fixations). Adopting expert gaze strategies led to an improvement in performance for the GT group, which outperformed the DL group in both retention and stress tests (faster completion time and fewer errors). CONCLUSION The STT is a practical and cost-effective training interface that automatically promotes an optimal gaze strategy. Trainees who are trained to adopt the efficient target-locking gaze strategy of experts gain a performance advantage over trainees left to discover their own strategies for task completion.

Performance Breakdown in Sport: The Roles of Reinvestment and Verbal Knowledge.

ptimal performance is the goal of all athletes, particularly when rewards are high. In pressure situ-ations, many athletes perform suboptimally despite ahigh motivation to succeed (Baumeister & Showers,1986). The phenomenon of paradoxical performancebreakdown has been observed under pressure (Bau-meister, 1984; Beilock & Carr, 2001), during competition(Baumeister, 1984; Seta, Paulus, & Risner, 1977), and inthe presence of an audience (Baumeister, 1982, 1984;Schlenker, 1980) or evaluative others (Martens LGray, 2004; Lewis & Linder, 1997).Gray (2004), for example, found that expertise inbaseball batting was associated with poor awareness ofonline movement kinematics (see also Beilock & Carr,2001). Attending to movement dynamics degraded bat-ting performance among expert batters. Gray alsofound that performance pressure tended to increaseskill-focused attention, supporting the idea that devot-ing attentional resources to normally automatic pro-cesses may mediate choking in sport. In a series ofpapers demonstrating a benefit of focusing externallyon movement outcome rather than internally on move-ment dynamics, Wulf and colleagues reported on theimportance of attentional focus (e.g., McNevin, Shea, W Shea & Wulf, 1999; Wulf, McNevin, & Shea,2001). McNevin et al

Imperceptibly Off-Center Goalkeepers Influence Penalty-Kick Direction in Soccer

Thepenaltykickgeneratesavarietyofstrongemotionsinsoccer (Carroll, Ebrahim, Tilling, Macleod, & Smith, 2002), and places the goalkeeper at such a disadvantage that only approximately 18% of penalty kicks are saved (Kropp & Trapp, 1999). We asked whether a goalkeeper can, by standing marginally left or right of goal center, bias a penalty taker implicitly to kick to the side with greater area, thus allowing the goalkeeper to dive in that direction to make a save. We show that the penalty taker is unlikely to be mindful that the goalkeeper is off center, but nevertheless can identify the side with greater area and will be more likely to direct the penalty kick to that side than to the other side. Observation of 200 video clips of penalty kicks, including those in World Cups, African Nations Cups, European Championships, and Union of European Football Association (UEFA) Champions League matches, indicated that goalkeepers stood marginally left or right of goal center on 96% of occasions. The meandisplacementofthegoalkeeperwas9.95cm,resultingina

Fundamental movement skills and physical activity among children with and without cerebral palsy.

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) proficiency is believed to influence childrens physical activity (PA), with those more proficient tending to be more active. Children with cerebral palsy (CP), who represent the largest diagnostic group treated in pediatric rehabilitation, have been found to be less active than typically developing children. This study examined the association of FMS proficiency with PA in a group of children with CP, and compared the data with a group of typically developing children. Five FMS (run, jump, kick, throw, catch) were tested using process- and product-oriented measures, and accelerometers were used to monitor PA over a 7-day period. The results showed that children with CP spent less time in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), but more time in sedentary behavior than typically developing children. FMS proficiency was negatively associated with sedentary time and positively associated with time spent in MVPA in both groups of children. Process-oriented FMS measures (movement patterns) were found to have a stronger influence on PA in children with CP than in typically developing children. The findings provide evidence that FMS proficiency facilitates activity accrual among children with CP, suggesting that rehabilitation and physical education programs that support FMS development may contribute to PA-related health benefits.

Duration of Parkinson Disease Is Associated With an Increased Propensity for “Reinvestment”

Background. As a consequence of difficulties in movement initiation and execution, people with Parkinson’s disease (PD) are typically encouraged to consciously monitor and control the mechanics of their actions. This is described as ‘reinvestment’ and has been shown to help mediate effective motor output. Paradoxically, in situations where people with PD are particularly motivated to move effectively, reinvestment may exacerbate existing movement deficits. Objective. To examine the propensity for reinvestment in a sample of people with PD. Methods. A volunteer sample of 55 people with PD was asked to complete a previously validated measure, the Reinvestment Scale. A sub-sample (and age matched controls) was asked to complete a recently developed, movement specific, version of the Scale. Data was collected on Mini Mental State Examination and the Hoehn & Yahr Scale. Participant demographics, including age of onset and duration of disease, were also collated. Results. Multiple regression analyses showed that duration of disease was associated with reinvestment score on both the Reinvestment Scale and the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale. Conclusions. Participants appeared to become more aware of the mechanics of their actions over time. Possible explanations for this finding are discussed with reference to rehabilitation.

Conscious monitoring and control (reinvestment) in surgical performance under pressure

BackgroundResearch on intraoperative stressors has focused on external factors without considering individual differences in the ability to cope with stress. One individual difference that is implicated in adverse effects of stress on performance is “reinvestment,” the propensity for conscious monitoring and control of movements. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of reinvestment on laparoscopic performance under time pressure.MethodsThirty-one medical students (surgery rotation) were divided into high- and low-reinvestment groups. Participants were first trained to proficiency on a peg transfer task and then tested on the same task in a control and time pressure condition. Outcome measures included generic performance and process measures. Stress levels were assessed using heart rate and the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI).ResultsHigh and low reinvestors demonstrated increased anxiety levels from control to time pressure conditions as indicated by their STAI scores, although no differences in heart rate were found. Low reinvestors performed significantly faster when under time pressure, whereas high reinvestors showed no change in performance times. Low reinvestors tended to display greater performance efficiency (shorter path lengths, fewer hand movements) than high reinvestors.ConclusionTrained medical students with a high individual propensity to consciously monitor and control their movements (high reinvestors) displayed less capability (than low reinvestors) to meet the demands imposed by time pressure during a laparoscopic task. The finding implies that the propensity for reinvestment may have a moderating effect on laparoscopic performance under time pressure.

Age effects shrink when motor learning is predominantly supported by nondeclarative, automatic memory processes: Evidence from golf putting

Can motor learning be equivalent in younger and older adults? To address this question, 48 younger (M = 23.5 years) and 48 older (M = 65.0 years) participants learned to perform a golf-putting task in two different motor learning situations: one that resulted in infrequent errors or one that resulted in frequent errors. The results demonstrated that infrequent-error learning predominantly relied on nondeclarative, automatic memory processes whereas frequent-error learning predominantly relied on declarative, effortful memory processes: After learning, infrequent-error learners verbalized fewer strategies than frequent-error learners; at transfer, a concurrent, attention-demanding secondary task (tone counting) left motor performance of infrequent-error learners unaffected but impaired that of frequent-error learners. The results showed age-equivalent motor performance in infrequent-error learning but age deficits in frequent-error learning. Motor performance of frequent-error learners required more attention with age, as evidenced by an age deficit on the attention-demanding secondary task. The disappearance of age effects when nondeclarative, automatic memory processes predominated suggests that these processes are preserved with age and are available even early in motor learning.