Richard C. Carter

Water quality deterioration: A study of household drinking water quality in rural Honduras

There is growing awareness that drinking-water can become contaminated following its collection from communal sources such as wells and tap-stands, as well as during its storage in the home. This study evaluated the post-supply drinking-water quality in three rural Honduran communities using either a protected hand-dug well or borehole supply. Water management practices were documented as a basis for further research to improve household drinking-water quality. Membrane filtration was used to compare thermotolerant coliform levels in samples taken from community wells and household drinking-water storage containers. Over a 2-year period, water quality was examined in 43 households and detailed observation made of typical collection, storage and usage practice. Substantial water quality deterioration occurred between the points of supply and consumption. Deterioration occurred regularly and frequently, and was experienced by the majority of study households. Only source water quality appeared to be a significant factor in determining household water quality. None of the storage factors examined, i.e. covering the container, type of container, the material from which the container was made, and hours stored, made any significant difference to the stored water quality. Observation of household water management shows that there are multiple points during the collection to use sequence where pollution could occur. The commonality of water management practice would be an asset in introducing appropriate intervention measures.

Using the surface spontaneous depolarization field of ferroelectrics to direct the assembly of virus particles

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) particles have been assembled at predetermined locations on the surface of a ferroelectric thin film with the composition PbZr0.3Ti0.7O3. The domain structure, hence the surface depolarization field for the ferroelectric associated with the bending of the ferroelectric band structure, was modified at length scales of around 2μm. A suspension of TMV particles was deposited onto the surface of the ferroelectric over the region where domain modification had been performed. SPM images (intermittent contact) revealed that the virus particles were attracted to regions of the surface that had either been positively modified or were nominally neutral. Regions of modified negative surface charge effectively repelled the virus particles.

Climate change, population trends and groundwater in Africa

Abstract Global climate change is affecting Africa, as it is every other continent and region of the world. The absolute poverty of a large proportion of the continents people renders them highly vulnerable to changes in climate. Mitigation of climate change is a global imperative. However, numerous other changes continue apace, notably population growth, natural resource degradation, and rural—urban migration. Probably 50% or more of the continents population rely on groundwater. This paper explores the relative impacts of changes in climate, demography and land use/cover on groundwater resources and demands. It concludes that the climate change impacts are likely to be significant, though uncertain in direction and magnitude, while the direct and indirect impacts of demographic change on both water resources and water demand are not only known with far greater certainty, but are also likely to be much larger. The combined effects of urban population growth, rising food demands and energy costs, and consequent demand for fresh water represent real cause for alarm, and these dwarf the likely impacts of climate change on groundwater resources, at least over the first half of the 21st century.

Sustainable use of groundwater for smallscale irrigation: With special reference to sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract Concepts of sustainability are discussed in relation to small-scale groundwater irrigation (SSGWI). The nature and important features of SSGWI are described, and the main endogenous and exogenous threats to the sustainability of this important farming activity are set out. The importance of groundwater monitoring and management, together with effective legislation and control, are highlighted. The potential conflict between promoters of rapid groundwater development for poverty alleviation and the proponents of a more cautious approach is discussed. The ‘Invisibility’ and limited area of SSGWI in semi-arid, sub-Saharan Africa are contrasted with their importance in what are otherwise drought-prone dryland environments.

Water losses in smallholder irrigation schemes

Control of water losses is one important aspect of good water management. However, not all losses matter, and some are unavoidable. Many factors interact to determine the level of water losses, typically leading to very site-specific analysis. This paper discusses water losses in irrigated smallholder production systems, and raises the key issues concerning their control or minimisation. It explores the importance of different categories of loss, the significance of timing of losses, and the causes of losses. A rational analytical framework is proposed, in analogy with financial accounting and auditing, for identifying, quantifying, and evaluating the significance of losses, and arriving at a programme of remedial action where appropriate. The final sections of the paper draw some general conclusions about losses in different types of scheme, and make recommendations for relevant research.

Water policy and policy implementation

Even the most brilliant piece of policymaking will fail if implemented badly — and vice versa. The water and sanitation sector cannot afford to get it wrong: but is there the will to come up with realistic objectives that translate into sustainable programmes?

Menstrual management: a neglected aspect of hygiene interventions

Purpose – Effective menstrual management is essential for the mental and physical well being of women. However, many women in low-income countries lack access to the materials and facilities required. They are thus restricted in their activities whilst menstruating thus compromising their education, income and domestic responsibilities. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – This study describes the menstrual management challenges faced by women in an emergency situation in Uganda. Totally, 50 interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with women from villages, internally displaced person (IDP) camps and schools so that the menstrual management of the host population could be compared with the IDPs. Findings – This study showed that in IDP camps there was a significant lack of materials including soap, underpants and absorbing cloth, and facilities like latrines and bathing shelters. As a consequence women in IDP camps suffer with poor health and diminished dignit...

Biological removal of iron from well-handpump water supplies

Groundwater can be easily abstracted and safe to drink — if iron is present, it can also look and taste extremely unpleasant. Filter designs for use with handpumps have been around for a while now — is the latest model more user-friendly?

Can and should sanitation and hygiene programmes be expected to achieve health impacts

Although the anticipated health benefits are not the only reason for undertaking sanitation and hygiene programmes, they do represent an important part of the justification. Studies and reviews over recent years have shown, however, that the health impacts of sanitation programmes can be quite small or even negligible. They have also provided no solid evidence that integrated (water, sanitation, hygiene) programming has any greater effect than addressing one or two of these components alone. Two questions arise: first, whether a certain level of sanitation usage and hygiene practice within a community is needed in order to achieve a measurable health impact (i.e. whether a minimum percentage of the population should be using safe sanitation); second, whether sanitation and hygiene interventions undertaken without accompanying water supply improvements are likely to have significant health benefits. In this opinion paper some plausible and practically relevant answers to these questions are extracted from ...

Rapid assessment of groundwater opportunities for displaced and refugee populations

Refugee camps may be more like cities than rural areas in terms of their demand for volumes of drinking water. When conducting a rapid assessment of groundwater, designers should consider how much is needed and how it will be delivered. An integrated approach is required to take into account the needs of pre-existing local populations as well as future operation and maintenance.