Richard E. Mayer

Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning

First, we propose a theory of multimedia learning based on the assumptions that humans possess separate systems for processing pictorial and verbal material (dual-channel assumption), each channel is limited in the amount of material that can be processed at one time (limited-capacity assumption), and meaningful learning involves cognitive processing including building connections between pictorial and verbal representations (active-processing assumption). Second, based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, we examine the concept of cognitive overload in which the learners intended cognitive processing exceeds the learners available cognitive capacity. Third, we examine five overload scenarios. For each overload scenario, we offer one or two theory-based suggestions for reducing cognitive load, and we summarize our research results aimed at testing the effectiveness of each suggestion. Overall, our analysis shows that cognitive load is a central consideration in the design of multimedia instruction.

The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning

During the past 10 years, the field of multimedia learning has emerged as a coherent discipline with an accumulated research base that has never been synthesized and organized in a handbook. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning constitutes the worlds first handbook devoted to comprehensive coverage of research and theory in the field of multimedia learning. Multimedia learning is defined as learning from words (e.g., spoken or printed text) and pictures (e.g. illustrations, photos, maps, graphs, animation, or video). The focus of this handbook is on how people learn from words and pictures in computer-based environments. Multimedia environments include online instructional presentations, interactive lessons, e-courses, simulation games, virtual reality, and computer-supported in-class presentations. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning seeks to establish what works (that is, to ground research in cognitive theory), and to consider when and where it works (that is, to explore the implications of research for practice). (http://books.google.fr/books?id=duWx8fxkkk0C&printsec=frontcover&hl=fr#v=onepage&q&f=false)

Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction.

The authors thesis is that there is sufficient research evidence to make any reasonable person skeptical about the benefits of discovery learning--practiced under the guise of cognitive constructivism or social constructivism--as a preferred instructional method. The author reviews research on discovery of problem-solving rules culminating in the 1960s, discovery of conservation strategies culminating in the 1970s, and discovery of LOGO programming strategies culminating in the 1980s. In each case, guided discovery was more effective than pure discovery in helping students learn and transfer. Overall, the constructivist view of learning may be best supported by methods of instruction that involve cognitive activity rather than behavioral activity, instructional guidance rather than pure discovery, and curricular focus rather than unstructured exploration.

A Split-Attention Effect in Multimedia Learning: Evidence for Dual Processing Systems in Working Memory.

Students viewed a computer-generated animation depicting the process of lightning formation (Experiment 1) or the operation of a cars braking system (Experiment 2). In each experiment, students received either concurrent narration describing the major steps (Group AN) or concurrent on-screen text involving the same words and presentation timing (Group AT). Across both experiments, students in Group AN outperformed students in Group AT in recalling the steps in the process on a retention test, in finding named elements in an illustration on a matching test, and in generating correct solutions to problems on a transfer test. Multimedia learners can integrate words and pictures more easily when the words are presented auditorily rather than visually. This split-attention effect is consistent with a dual-processing model of working memory consisting of separate visual and auditory channels.

Cognitive Principles of Multimedia Learning: The Role of Modality and Contiguity

Students viewed a computer animation depicting the process of lightning. In Experiment 1, they concurrently viewed on-screen text presented near the animation or far from the animation, or concurrently listened to a narration. In Experiment 2, they concurrently viewed on-screen text or listened to a narration, viewed on-screen text following or preceding the animation, or listened to a narration following or preceding the animation. Learning was measured by retention, transfer, and matching tests. Experiment 1 revealed a spatial-contiguity effect in which students learned better when visual and verbal materials were physically close. Both experiments revealed a modality effect in which students learned better when verbal input was presented auditorily as speech rather than visually as text. The results support 2 cognitive principles of multimedia learning. Technological advances have made possible the combination and coordination of verbal presentation modes (such as narration and on-screen text) with nonverbal presentation modes (such as graphics, video, animations, and environmental sounds) in just one device (the computer). These advances include multimedia environments, where students can be introduced to causal models of complex systems by the use of computer-generated animations (Park & Hopkins, 1993). However, despite its power to facilitate learning, multimedia has been developed on the basis of its technological capacity, and rarely is it used according to research-based principles (Kozma, 1991; Mayer, in press; Moore, Burton, & Myers, 1996). Instructional design of multimedia is still mostly based on the intuitive beliefs of designers rather than on empirical evidence (Park & Hannafin, 1994). The purpose of the present study is to contribute to multimedia learning theory by clarifying and testing two cognitive principles: the contiguity principle and the modality principle.

The promise of multimedia learning: using the same instructional design methods across different media

Multimedia learning occurs when students build mental representations from words and pictures that are presented to them (e.g., printed text and illustrations or narration and animation). The promise of multimedia learning is that students can learn more deeply from well-designed multimedia messages consisting of words and pictures than from more traditional modes of communication involving words alone. This article explores a program of research aimed at determining (a) research-based principles for the design of multimedia explanations—which can be called methods, and (b) the extent to which methods are effective across different learning environments—which can be called media. A review of research on the design of multimedia explanations conducted in our lab at Santa Barbara shows (a) a multimedia effect—in which students learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone—in both book-based and computer-based environments, (b) a coherence effect—in which students learn more deeply when extraneous material is excluded rather than included—in both book-based and computer-based environments, (c) a spatial contiguity effect—in which students learn more deeply when printed words are placed near rather than far from corresponding pictures—in both book-based and computer-based environments, and (d) a personalization effect—in which students learn more deeply when words are presented in conversational rather than formal style—both in computer-based environments containing spoken words and those using printed words. Overall, our results provide four examples in which the same instructional design methods are effective across different media.  2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

For Whom Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words? Extensions of a Dual-Coding Theory of Multimedia Learning

In 2 experiments, high- and low-spatial ability students viewed a computer-gener ated animation and listened simultaneously (concurrent group) or successively (successive group) to a narration that explained the workings either of a bicycle tire pump (Experiment 1) or of the human respiratory system (Experiment 2). The concurrent group generated more creative solutions to subsequent transfer problems than did the successive group; this contiguity effect was strong for high- but not for low-spatial ability students. Consistent with a dual-coding theory, spatial ability allows high-spatial learners to devote more cognitive resources to building referential connections between visual and verbal representations of the presented material, whereas low-spatial ability learners must devote more cognitive resources to building representation connections between visually presented material and its visual representation.

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Planetarian March 2014 Introduction The planetarium has undergone an evolution in delivery (Yo, Chaplin, & Goldsworth, 2011). No longer do some planetariums use analog projectors to display the stars, but rather use digital projectors to create immersive cosmic environments on a grand scale using a multimedia format of images, video, sound, and narration (Rosenfield et al, 2010). Does this new method of delivery provide a benefit to the audience? Are the strategies employed to instruct the audience effective? Which strategies, if any, deliver optimal learning conditions?

When Is an Illustration Worth Ten Thousand Words

In three experiments, students read expository passages concerning how scientific devices work, which contained either no illustrations (control); static illustrations of the device with labels for each part (parts), static illustrations of the device with labels for each major action (steps), or dynamic illustrations showing the «off» and «on» states of the device along with labels for each part and each major action (parts-and-steps)

The Instructive Animation: Helping Students Build Connections between Words and Pictures in Multimedia Learning

In 2 experiments, students studied an animation depicting the operation of a bicycle tire pump or an automobile braking system, along with concurrent oral narration of the steps in the process (concurrent group), successive presentation of animation and narration (by 4 different methods), animation alone, narration alone, or no instruction (control group). On retention tests, the control group performed more poorly than each of the other groups, which did not differ from one another. On problem-solving tests, the concurrent group performed better than each of the other groups, which did not differ from one another. These results are consistent with a dual-coding model in which retention requires the construction of representational and referential connections