Richard E. Snow

The complexity continuum in the radex and hierarchical models of intelligence

Abstract The hierarchical and radex models of ability organization are shown to be parallel. Both models suggest a complexity continuum along which cognitive performance tasks can be arrayed. In our revised radex model, the complexity continuum from the center to the periphery is shown to correspond to the general-to-specific dimension in factor analyses, or to test correlations with the general factor; complexity is redefined as apparent processing complexity. Examination of the theoretical and empirical bases for this continuum indicates its central importance for theories of intelligence.

Aptitude-Treatment Interaction as a Framework for Research on Individual Differences in Psychotherapy.

Aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI) methods are designed to take individual differences into account systematically in treatment evaluation. This article reviews the general concepts of aptitude and ATI and summarizes lesions learned in ATI research on educational treatments that should help ATI research on psychotherapeutic treatments. Recommendations for research design and data analysis address problems of aptitude distributions, multivariate aptitude complexes, detective work with scatterplots, disattenuation, treatment and therapist characteristics, therapist-client matching, ecological validity, outcome variables, statistical power, aggregation, and person independence. Example studies and hypotheses about the nature of ATI processes are also included.

Toward Assessment of Cognitive and Conative Structures in Learning

New conceptions of aptitude, learning, development, and achievement, both cognitive and conative, are identified and some new ideas about their assessment are reviewed. A rough table of these constructs is provided. It is argued that much construct validational research is needed to understand the new constructs and place them in a reasonable and useful network. Also needed is a recognition that different purposes for educational assessment require different levels and models of assessment. A plea for research on teacher understanding and use is included, because no improvements in school level assessment can be reached without it.

Adaptive reasoning: Componential and eye movement analysis of geometric analogy performance ☆

Abstract The present study explored individual differences in performance of a geometric analogies task. Whereas past studies employed true/false or two-alternative items, the present research included four-alternative items and studied eye movements and confidence judgements for each item performance as well as latency and error. Item difficulty proved to be a function of an interaction between the number of response alternatives and the number of elements in items, especially for subjects lower in fluid-analytic reasoning ability. Results were interpreted using two hypothesized performance strategies: constructive matching and response elimination. The less efficient of these, response elimination, seemed to be used more by lower ability subjects on more difficult items. While two previous theories resemble one or the other of these strategies, neither alone seems to capture the complexity of adaptive problem solving. It appears that a comprehensive theory should incorporate strategy shifting as a function of item difficulty and subject ability. Componential models, based in part on past research, revealed that a justification component was activated and deactivated depending upon the nature of the analogy being solved. In addition, two new components, spatial inference and spatial application, were identified as important on some items, suggesting that different geometric analogy items invoke different cognitive processing components. Thus, a comprehensive theory should also describe component activation and deactivation.

Individual Differences and Instructional Theory

precision. And finally, and this is perhaps the hardest requirement to meet, it takes a large amount of time and cooperation from the adults to collect outcome information. In research on this topic, one cannot expect clearcut and indisputable results even if the work is done with craftsmanship and sophistication. Even should the enquiry achieve scientific maturity, the step will be difficult to take between results and their application in educational decisions because it will never become easy to trace the processes that intervene between treatments and outcomes. Even so, I think it highly worthwhile to do such research. Indeed it is almost an obligation for some members of the educational research community to devote serious work and attention to the longterm impact of the educational enterprise. Notes

Enhancing the Validity and Usefulness of Large-Scale Educational Assessments: II. NELS:88 Science Achievement:

This study is second in a series demonstrating that achievement tests are multidimensional and that using psychologically meaningful subscores in national educational surveys can enhance test validity and usefulness. NELS:88 8th- and l0th-grade science tests were subjected to full information item factor analysis. Factors reflecting everyday knowledge, scientific reasoning, chemistry knowledge, and reasoning with knowledge were obtained in 8th grade. Quantitative science, spatial-mechanical, and basic knowledge and reasoning were distinguishable factors in 10th grade. Regression analyses showed that different patterns of prior math and science achievement, and of course taking, were associated with each l0th-grade science factor. Teacher emphasis on problem solving and understanding related more to quantitative science, and basic knowledge and reasoning. Spatial-mechanical reasoning showed the strongest gender and ethnicity effects; it related also to science museum visits but not to instructional variables. It is recommended that multidimensional achievement scores be used to capture student and teacher effects that total scores used alone miss.

Enhancing the Validity and Usefulness of Large-Scale Educational Assessments: IV NELS:88 Science Achievement to 12th Grade

The present study demonstrates the utility of a multidimensional representation of student mathematics achievement. Third in a series of studies using the math test item level data from the NELS: 88 longitudinal study, it carries the analyses through the 12th grade. Full information factor analysis was employed to investigate the structure of math achievement, create meaningful achievement scales, and explore their relationships with student background, academic program, and instructional variables. The findings support a basic distinction between Mathematical Reasoning (MR) and Mathematical Knowledge (MK) for two of the three administered test forms (low and middle levels), replicating previous findings for the 8th- and l0th-grade data. A more complex structure for the high test form reflected variation in problem-solving strategies as well as in content. Regression analyses suggested differential patterns of relationships between student, program, and instructional variables for math achievement subscores. These patterns were also compared with results for the unidimensional total score. Discussion emphasizes implications for score interpretations, both normative and criterion-referenced, within the context of a validity argument.

Placing Children in Special Education: Some Comments

grams for the Mentally Retarded (Heller, Holtzman, & Messick, 1982), and the papers by Messick (1983) and by Resnick and Finn (1983) summarizing its conclusions, deserve the careful consideration of many audiences. Educational researchers and practitioners in general as well as in special education, the agencies that fund (or should fund) research in this field, the test publishing organizations, and many groups of public officials, administrators, and concerned citizens, most certainly will benefit from the wise, thought-provoking, and thorough review of the issues addressed.

A Person-Situation Interaction Theory of Intelligence in Outline

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the theory of intelligence in outline. It takes intelligence as a first focus, however, because of two centrally important facts; general ability differences strongly predict individual differences in learning from instruction and they also interact frequently with variations in instructional treatment in this prediction. These kinds of interactions are called aptitude-treatment interactions (ATI). The fact that ATI are ubiquitous in education emphasizes the need for a person-situation interaction theory of intelligence. Intelligence has many faces, a characteristic that is usually described as multifaceted. There are clearly multiple levels on which intellectual processes operate. Many theorists posit metacognitive as well as cognitive functions; in the Demetriou-Efklides terminology, these are hypercognitive functions. In addition, the chapter describes intelligence as hierarchical.

Aptitude, instruction, and individual development

Abstract Education is viewed as an aptitude development program. Common vs. individual goals with respect to aptitude and achievement are contrasted and some educational myths about aptitude are rejected. The concept of aptitude is revised to represent individual differences in personsituation interaction in learning and development. Research on cognitive and motivational aptitudes in relation to instruction is then briefly reviewed, and suggestions for a unified developmental differential approach to educational research are offered.