Richard G. French

Observations of Saturn's Ring-Plane Crossings in August and November 1995

Observations of Saturns ring system with the Hubble Space Telescope during the 10 August 1995 Earth crossing and the 17 to 21 November 1995 solar crossing indicate that the F ring dominates their apparent edge-on thickness of 1.2 to 1.5 kilometers. The F ring is slightly inclined with respect to the A ring, which may explain the approximately 50-minute difference in apparent crossing times for the east and west ring ansae in August. Prometheus lags its predicted position by about 19 degrees in longitude. The faint G ring is neutral or reddish in color and is confined to a radial range of 2.72 to 2.85 Saturn radii. The broad, distinctly blue E ring flares outward to a maximum thickness of about 15,000 kilometers at 7.5 Saturn radii and appears to have a spatially uniform particle size distribution.

Ring Particle Composition and Size Distribution

We review recent progress concerning the composition and size distribution of the particles in Saturns main ring system, and describe how these properties vary from place to place. We discuss how the particle size distribution is measured, and how it varies radially. We note the discovery of unusually large “particles” in restricted radial bands. We discuss the properties of the grainy regoliths of the ring particles. We review advances in understanding of ring particle composition from spectrophotometry at UV, visual and near-IR wavelengths, multicolor photometry at visual wavelengths, and thermal emission. We discuss the observed ring atmosphere and its interpretation and, briefly, models of the evolution of ring composition. We connect the ring composition with what has been learned recently about the composition of other icy objects in the Saturn system and beyond. Because the rings are so thoroughly and rapidly structurally evolved, the composition of the rings may be our best clue as to their origin; however, the evolution of ring particle composition over time must first be understood.

An Evolving View of Saturn’s Dynamic Rings

Saturns Secrets Probed The Cassini spacecraft was launched on 15 October 1997. It took it almost 7 years to reach Saturn, the second-largest planet in the solar system. After almost 6 years of observations of the series of interacting moons, rings, and magnetospheric plasmas, known as the Kronian system, Cuzzi et al. (p. 1470) review our current understanding of Saturns rings—the most extensive and complex in the solar system—and draw parallels with circumstellar disks. Gombosi and Ingersoll (p. 1476; see the cover) review what is known about Saturns atmosphere, ionosphere, and magnetosphere. We review our understanding of Saturn’s rings after nearly 6 years of observations by the Cassini spacecraft. Saturn’s rings are composed mostly of water ice but also contain an undetermined reddish contaminant. The rings exhibit a range of structure across many spatial scales; some of this involves the interplay of the fluid nature and the self-gravity of innumerable orbiting centimeter- to meter-sized particles, and the effects of several peripheral and embedded moonlets, but much remains unexplained. A few aspects of ring structure change on time scales as short as days. It remains unclear whether the vigorous evolutionary processes to which the rings are subject imply a much younger age than that of the solar system. Processes on view at Saturn have parallels in circumstellar disks.

A strong decrease in Saturn's equatorial jet at cloud level.

The atmospheres of the giant planets Jupiter and Saturn have a puzzling system of zonal (east–west) winds alternating in latitude, with the broad and intense equatorial jets on Saturn having been observed previously to reach a velocity of about 470 m s-1 at cloud level. Globally, the location and intensity of Jupiters jets are stable in time to within about ten per cent, but little is known about the stability of Saturns jet system. The long-term behaviour of these winds is an important discriminator between models for giant-planet circulations. Here we report that Saturns winds show a large drop in the velocity of the equatorial jet of about 200 m s-1 from 1996 to 2002. By contrast, the other measured jets (primarily in the southern hemisphere) appear stable when compared to the Voyager wind profile of 1980–81.

Compositions of Saturn's rings A, B, and C from high resolution near-infrared spectroscopic observations

We used the NASA IRTF spectrograph SpeX to obtain near-infrared spectra (0.9-5.4 µm) of Saturns rings, achieving spectral resolution λ/∆λ of about 2000. The spatial resolution (about 1 arcsec) is sufficient to distinguish the three main ring components (A, B and C rings) from one another. These new observations of Saturns rings are the first to combine an extended spectral range with high spectral resolution and good spatial resolution. We combined these data with recent photometric observations acquired by HST in the 0.3-1.0 µm range. The spectra of the A band B rings are dominated by strong features due to crystalline water ice. The shape and the depth of these absorptions differ for each ring, which indicates different water ice grain sizes and abundances. No spectral evidence for volatile ices other than water ice has been detected. Both the lower albedo and the less blue slope in the near-infrared reflectance of the C ring indicate a concentration of dark material different from that in the A and B rings. The broader triangular Fresnel reflection peak at 3.1 µm may support the presence of some amount of amorphous ice. The C ring spectrum exhibits bands centered at 1.73 and 3.4 µm which agree in position quite well with the C-H bands. Although the detection is probable, it requires confirmation. With a radiative transfer model, we constrain the grain sizes and the relative abundances of water ice, a dark colorless component (amorphous carbon) to adjust the albedo and a second contaminant to reproduce the reddening in the UV-visible range represented here by organic tholins. The dark component of the C ring spectrum is included as an intra-mixture only. The cosmogenic implications of the inferred compositions are discussed.

Waves in the Jovian upper atmosphere

Abstract We examine a propagating wave interpretation of the temperature profile features observed in the Jovian upper atmosphere by Veverka et al. Inertia-gravity waves with frequencies on the order of 3 × 10−3 sec−1 are consistent with the data. If the interpretation is correct, and if the waves carry energy upward, it implies 1) that there is excitation of such waves at lower levels, 2) that eddy diffusivities on the order of 106 cm2 sec−1 are probably generated by the waves, and 3) that the energy carried by waves is important to the upper atmospheric heat balance.

The Structure of Saturn's Rings

Our understanding of the structure of Saturns rings has evolved steadily since their discovery by Galileo Galilei in 1610. With each advance in observations of the rings over the last four centuries, new structure has been revealed, starting with the recognition that the rings are a disk by Huygens in 1656 through discoveries of the broad organization of the main rings and their constituent gaps and ringlets to Cassini observations that indirectly reveal individual clumps of particles tens of meters in size. The variety of structure is as broad as the range in scales. The main rings have distinct characteristics on a spatial scale of 104 km that suggest dramatically different evolution and perhaps even different origins. On smaller scales, the A and C ring and Cassini Division are punctuated by gaps from tens to hundreds of kilometer across, while the B ring is littered with unexplained variations in optical depth on similar scales. Moons are intimately involved with much of the structure in the rings. The outer edges of the A and B rings are shepherded and sculpted by resonances with the Janus—Epimetheus coorbitals and Mimas, respectively. Density waves at the locations of orbital resonances with nearby and embedded moons make up the majority of large-scale features in the A ring. Moons orbiting within the Encke and Keeler gaps in the A ring create those gaps and produce wakes in the nearby ring. Other gaps and wave-like features await explanation. The largest ring particles, while not massive enough to clear a gap, produce localized propeller-shaped disturbances hundreds of meters long. Particles throughout the A and B rings cluster into strands or self-gravity wakes tens of meters across that are in equilibrium between gravitational accretion and Keplerian shear. In the peaks of strong density waves particles pile together in a cosmic traffic jam that results in kilometer-long strands that may be larger versions of self-gravity wakes. The F ring is a showcase of accretion and disruption at the edges of Saturns Roche zone. Clumps and strands form and are disrupted as they encounter each other and are perturbed by close encounters with nearby Prometheus. The menagerie of structures in the rings reveals a system that is dynamic and evolving on timescales ranging from days to tens or hundreds of millions of years. The architecture of the rings thus provides insight to the origin as well as the long and short-term evolution of the rings.

Orbits of nine Uranian rings

Observations of a stellar occultation by Uranus and its nine rings are presented and used to examine the structures and kinematics of the rings. The observations of the occultation of the K giant star KM 12 were obtained in the K band with the 4-m CTIO telescope at a signal-to-noise ratio higher than any previously obtained. Ring occultation profiles reveal the alpha ring to possibly have a double structure and less abrupt boundaries than the gamma ring, which exhibits diffraction fringes, while the eta ring is a broad ring with an unresolved narrow component at its inner edge. The present timing data, as well as previous occultation timings, are fit to a kinematic model in which all nine rings are treated as coplanar eclipses of zero inclination, precessing due to the zonal harmonics of the Uranian gravitational potential to obtain solutions for the ring orbits. Analysis of the residuals from the fitted orbits reveals that the proposed model is a good representation of ring kinematics. The reference system defined by the orbit solutions has also been used to obtain a value of 0.022 + or - 0.003 for the ellipticity of Uranus and a Uranian rotation period of 15.5 h.

VERTICAL STRUCTURE IN PLUTO'S ATMOSPHERE FROM THE 2006 JUNE 12 STELLAR OCCULTATION

Pluto occultations are historically rare events, having been observed in 1988, 2002, 2006, and, as Pluto moves into the crowded Galactic plane, on several occasions in 2007. Here we present six results from our observations of the 2006 June 12 event from several sites in Australia and New Zealand. First, we show that Plutos 2006 bulk atmospheric column abundance, as in 2002, is over twice the value measured in 1988, implying that nitrogen frost on Plutos surface is 1.2-1.7 K warmer in 2006 than 1988 despite a 9% drop in incident solar flux. We measure a half-light shadow radius of 1216 ± 8.6 km in 2006, nominally larger than published values of 1213 ± 16 km measured in 2002. Given the current error bars, this latest half-light radius cannot discriminate between continued atmospheric growth or shrinkage, but it rules out several of the volatile transport scenarios modeled by Hansen & Paige. Second, we resolve spikes in the occultation light curve that are similar to those seen in 2002 and model the vertical temperature fluctuations that cause them. Third, we show that Plutos upper atmosphere appears to hold a steady temperature of ~100 K, as predicted from the methane thermostat model, even at latitudes where the methane thermostat is inoperative. This implies that energy transport rates are faster than radiational cooling rates. Fourth, this occultation has provided the first significant detection of a non-isothermal temperature gradient in Plutos upper atmosphere also reported by Elliot et al., possibly the result of CO gas in Plutos upper atmosphere. Fifth, we show that a haze-only explanation for Plutos light curve is extremely unlikely; a thermal inversion is necessary to explain the observed light curve. And sixth, we derive an upper limit for the haze optical depth of 0.0023 in the zenith direction at average CCD wavelengths.

Saturn’s wayward shepherds: the peregrinations of Prometheus and Pandora

Abstract Saturn’s narrow F ring is flanked by two nearby small satellites, Prometheus and Pandora, discovered in Voyager images taken in 1980 and 1981 (Synnott et al., 1983 , Icarus 53, 156–158). Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) during the ring plane crossings (RPX) of 1995 led to the unexpected finding that Prometheus was ∼19° behind its predicted orbital longitude, based on the Synnott et al. (1983) Voyager ephemeris (Bosh and Rivkin, 1996 Science 272, 518–521; Nicholson et al., 1996 , Science 272, 509–515). Whereas Pandora was at its predicted location in August 1995, McGhee (2000 , Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University) found from the May and November 1995 RPX data that Pandora also deviates from the Synnott et al. (1983) Voyager ephemeris. Using archival HST data from 1994, previously unexamined RPX images, and a large series of targeted WFPC2 observations between 1996 and 2002, we have determined highly accurate sky-plane positions for Prometheus, Pandora, and nine other satellites found in our images. We compare the Prometheus and Pandora measurements to the predictions of substantially revised and improved ephemerides for the two satellites based on an extensive analysis of a large set of Voyager images (Murray et al., 2000 , Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 32, 1090; Evans, 2001 Ph.D. thesis, Queen Mary College). From December 1994 to December 2000, Prometheus’ orbital longitude lag was changing by −0.71° year−1 relative to the new Voyager ephemeris. In contrast, Pandora is ahead of the revised Voyager prediction. From 1994 to 2000, its longitude offset changed by +0.44° year−1, showing in addition an ∼585 day oscillatory component with amplitude ΔλCR0 = 0.65 ± 0.07° whose phase matches the expected perturbation due to the nearby 3:2 corotation resonance with Mimas, modulated by the 71-year libration in the longitude of Mimas due to its 4:2 resonance with Tethys. We determine orbital elements for freely precessing equatorial orbits from fits to the 1994–2000 HST observations, from which we conclude that Prometheus’ semimajor axis was 0.31 km larger, and Pandora’s was 0.20 km smaller, than during the Voyager epoch. Subsequent observations in 2001–2002 reveal a new twist in the meanderings of these satellites: Prometheus’ mean motion changed suddenly by an additional −0.77° year−1, equivalent to a further increase in semimajor axis of 0.33 km, at the same time that Pandora’s mean motion changed by +0.92° year−1, corresponding to a change of −0.42 km in its semimajor axis. There is an apparent anticorrelation of the motions of these two moons seen in the 2001–2002 observations, as well as over the 20-year interval since the Voyager epoch. This suggests a common origin for their wanderings, perhaps through direct exchange of energy between the satellites as the result of resonances, possibly involving the F ring.