Richard I. Evans

Smoking in children: Developing a social psychological strategy of deterrence☆

Abstract Because smoking as an identifiable risk factor for several diseases, has not declined in adults and may be increasing in teen-agers and children, a social-psychological strategy to deter smoking in children is currently being implemented in the Houston (Texas) Independent School District. The study, developed by a group at the University of Houston Psychology Department, involves various sociological and psychological devices, such as modeling, identification, and attribution in conjunction with persuasive communication techniques—affect, specificity, and feedback. A pretest, post-test design is employed in a longitudinal study. An independent variable package, used in the pilot study involving seventh graders, includes four different videotapes presented to the subjects on four consecutive days. The role-played sequences in the tapes reflect how pressures by peers, parents, and media can precipitate smoking in children. The tape presentation is followed by focused discussion about coping with these pressures. The dependent variable package, in addition to various attitudinal and reported smoking behavior responses, employs a novel nicotine-in-saliva measure for more objective determination of whether or not a student is smoking. The long term longitudinal study will involve fifth- through 12th-graders. It is hoped that preventing children from starting to smoke will prove to be more effective than attempting to deal with already addicted smokers.

Large-Scale Environmental Risk Factors for Substance Use

This article discusses evidence on the importance of large-scale environmental risk factors for onset of tobacco, alcohol, and other drug use. It is suggested that smoking onset occurs through a process in which some individuals change from nonsmoking to susceptibility, experimentation, and adoption of regular use. A distinction is made between distal and proximal risk factors, and a model is outlined that encompasses both levels. We consider evidence on large-scale variables including socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and media advertising as factors in onset and discuss how the effects of these large-scale variables are mediated. Recommendations for research and program development are made.

A survey of injuries among broadway performers

To obtain more information about injuries of Broadway performers, 313 performers appearing in 23 Broadway companies were surveyed. The percentage of performers injured was 55.5%, with a mean of 1.08 injuries performer. Lower extremity injuries were the most common. Sixty-two percent of performers believed that their injuries were preventable. As this study reports factors that significantly increase the risk of injury for dancers and actors, it may help to heighten concern with reducing the incidence of injuries to professional performers, theatrical students, and nonprofessionals worldwide.

Global Positive Expectancies of the Self and Adolescents' Substance Use Avoidance: Testing a Social Influence Mediational Model

Grounded in theories of global positive expectancies and social influences of behavior, this investigation posited a model in which global positive expectancies are related to substance use as mediated by attitudes, subjective norms, self-efficacy, and intentions. Using a cohort sample (n = 525), structural equation modeling was employed to test the hypothesized predictions of future substance use. The findings suggest that, relative to adolescents with lower global positive expectancies, adolescents with higher global positive expectancies use substances less frequently over time because of their protective attitudinal and control-oriented perceptions towards that behavior. Additionally, results from the current investigation also extend prior findings on the factor structure of global positive expectancies, suggesting these expectancies can be viewed as a second-order factor representing optimism and two components of hope-agency and pathways.

Some Theoretical Models and Constructs Generic to Substance Abuse Prevention Programs for Adolescents: Possible Relevance and Limitations for Problem Gambling

For the past several years the author and his colleagues have explored the area of how social psychological constructs and theoretical models can be applied to the prevention of health threatening behaviors in adolescents. In examining the need for the development of gambling prevention programs for adolescents, it might be of value to consider the application of such constructs and theoretical models as a foundation to the development of prevention programs in this emerging problem behavior among adolescents. In order to provide perspective to the reader, the present paper reviews the history of various psychosocial models and constructs generic to programs directed at prevention of substance abuse in adolescents. A brief history of some of these models, possibly most applicable to gambling prevention programs, are presented. Social inoculation, reasoned action, planned behavior, and problem behavior theory, are among those discussed. Some deficits of these models, are also articulated. How such models may have relevance to developing programs for prevention of problem gambling in adolescents is also discussed. However, the inherent differences between gambling and more directly health threatening behaviors such as substance abuse must, of course, be seriously considered in utilizing such models. Most current gambling prevention programs have seldom been guided by theoretical models. Developers of gambling prevention programs should consider theoretical foundations, particularly since such foundations not only provide a guide for programs, but may become critical tools in evaluating their effectiveness.

Control and Prevention of Smoking in Adolescents: A Psychosocial Perspective

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses control and prevention of smoking in adolescents from a psychological perspective. Smoking control and prevention programs directed at adolescents may have placed too much confidence in communicating knowledge about the dangers of smoking on the assumption that fear arousal will be sufficient to thwart smoking. However, it is also evident that fear of the consequences of smoking may not be sufficient to discourage a substantial number of children from beginning to smoke. Responses from the teenagers themselves suggest that peer pressure may be one of the major influences to take up smoking. There is also some evidence that a smoking parent or older sibling becomes a role model for the child. The influence of the mass media in the initiation of smoking is somewhat more difficult to establish. Some investigators examining the issue of why fear arousal may often have such a limited effect on health behavior suggest that much of the information communicated to children concerning smoking and its dangers is too general and not sufficiently personalized. Children may need to be exposed to evidence that smoking has immediate physiological effects on the body.

Survey of injuries among West End performers

OBJECTIVES: To obtain more information about injuries of West End performers. METHODS: A retrospective survey of 269 performers appearing in 20 West End productions (12 dramas and eight musicals). RESULTS: In current productions, 46% of all performers sustained at least one injury for an average of 0.87 injuries per performer. Lower extremity injuries were the most common for dancers (52.2% of injuries) and actors (43.2%) with neck and back injuries the second most common. Sprains and strains were the most common diagnoses. 61% of performers thought that their injuries were preventable. Most performers consulted nonphysician healthcare providers. Factors significantly influencing the risk of injuries for performers include female sex, a history of previous injuries, missed performances due to previous injuries, more physically demanding roles, and performing on raked (angled) stages. CONCLUSION: West End performers commonly sustain injuries. Although primary prevention of most theatrical injuries is not possible, modification of raked stages may reduce the incidence. This study may be helpful to the growing number of healthcare providers who practice performing arts medicine and may stimulate additional concern and research in the medical and theatrical communities about the performance injuries of professionals, amateurs, and theatrical students worldwide.

New measure of effects of persuasive communications: a chemical indicator of toothbrushing behavior.

The purpose of the present investigation was to develop a behavioral measure of attitude change and examine its utility for large-scale field research efforts. Three groups were formed from 68 junior and senior high school students and each was presented with a different form (positive, fear, neutral) of a communication within the context of a public school systems ongoing dental hygiene program. Cleanliness of their teeth was measured by a chemical in tablet form called a “disclosing tablet” which, when chewed, stains red the areas of concentration of bacterial placque on the teeth. This study involved taking a 35-mm. color slide of each Ss mouth before and 2 wk. after the experimental communication. Preliminary results lend support to the effectiveness and utility of this procedure in assessing behavioral change within a natural setting.

Formative evaluation in school-based health promotion investigations

This article is intended for behavioral and biomedical researchers who have become involved increasingly in health promotion research in social settings. It describes how researchers may more precisely plan and profit from employing formative evaluation, which is too frequently more casually undertaken than is summative evaluation. Formative evaluation includes responses from the student subjects of such programs and school administrative and instructional staff, as well as other elements unique to the school setting such as existing curricula and the logistics of time and space. In order to tailor such programs to the unique properties of the school setting, a continual feedback loop should be in place. Such loops can channel both quantitative and qualitative data to the researcher to assist in adapting projects to changing conditions during the course of their implementation. This article presents a case history of the application of formative evaluation drawn from a health promotion project conducted by the authors. It includes as background for this case history, definitions of formative evaluation and an analysis of its costs.

Smoking research: basic research, intervention, prevention, and new trends.

Smoking is a behavior that is influenced by a variety of factors that cut across methodologies, disciplines, and content areas within health psychology. The present article is designed to show the diversity and richness of smoking research by examining smoking from four perspective: basic laboratory research, intervention, prevention and deterrence, and new directions in smoking research. Methodologies that were derived from such varied sources as psychopharmacology, behavioral pharmacology, behavior therapy, clinical psychology, public health and health promotion, and social and developmental psychology have been used to study the smoking problem. The subject populations in these investigations ranged from animal models, to the individual smoker attempting to quit, to communities involved in health promotion and public health approaches. Future research should seek to provide new and improved examples of interdisciplinary research within the field of health psychology to multidisciplinary approaches from the basic and applied sciences.